LIBRARY OF WELLESLEY COLLEGE PRESENTED BY Mr. A. A. Sweet Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from Boston Library Consortium Member Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/memoirsreadbefor01anth Publications of tfje ^ntljropl0gixHl ^ocidj of Sonboit. MEMOIES READ BEFORE THE SOCIETY. VOLUME THE FIRST. T f MEMOIRS READ BEFORE THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. 1863-4. VOL. I LONDON: PUBLISHED FOR THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY, BY TRUBNER AND CO., 6 0, PATERNOSTER ROW. 1865. T. RICHARDS, 87, GREAT QtJEEN STREET. ft &ntf)ropol0gtcal <&orietti of ILontton. 4, ST. MARTIN'S PLACE, TRAFALGAR SQUARE. OFFICERS AND COUNCIL FOK 1865. President. JAMES HUNT, Esq., Ph.D., F.S.A., F. and Hon. For. Sec. R.S.L. 3Jiccs1J3resiornts. CAPTAIN RICHARD F. BURTON, H.M. Consul at Santos, etc. J. FREDERICK COLLINGWOOD, Esq., F.R.S.L., F.G.S. DR. BERTHOLD SEEMANN, F.L.S., F.R.G-.S. T. BENDYSHE, Esq., M.A. pjonorarg .Secretaries. GEORGE E. ROBERTS, Esq., F.G.S. W. BOLLAERT, Esq. p?onorarg JForeign Sccretarg. ALFRED HIGGINS, Esq. treasurer. RICHARD STEPHEN CHARNOCK, Esq., Ph.D., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. Council. HUGH J. C. BEAVAN, Esq., F.R.G.S. S. E. BOUVERIE-PUSEY, Esq., F.E.S. CHARLES HARCOURT CHAMBERS, Esq., M.A., F.R.G.S. S. EDWIN COLLINGWOOD, Esq., F.Z.S. GEORGE D. GIBB, Esq., M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.G.S., etc. VISCOUNT MILTON, F.R.G.S. GEORGE NORTH, Esq. LUKE OWEN PIKE, Esq., M.A. W. WINWOOD READE, Esq., F.R.G.S. JAMES REDDLE, Esq. GEORGE FREDERICK ROLPH, Esq. C. ROBERT DES RUFFIERES, Esq., F.G.S., F.E.S. WILLIAM TRAVERS, Esq., F.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. W. S. W. VAUX, Esq., M.A., F.S.A., F. and Hon. Sec. R.S.L. Curator, librarian, ano Assistant Secretary. C. CARTER BLAKE, Esq., F.G.S. ILLUSTRATIONS. Urns of Chloritic Schist, found at the Miickle Heog, Island of Unst (Shetland) - - 297 Skull, from the same locality 299 Ancient British Skull. Long Barrow, W. Stoke, "Wilts. - - at end. Ditto ditto - - - - „ Ditto Long Barrow, Tilshead, Wilts. „ Ancient Gaulish Skull. " Grotte/' Nogent les Vierges, Oise. - - „ Tables I, II, III, IV. „ CONTENTS. i. On the Negro's Place in Nature. By James Hunt, Ph.D., F.S.A., F.R.S.L., F.A.S.L., President A.S.L. 1 ii. On the Weight of the Brain in the Negro. By Thomas B. Peacock, M.D., F.R.C.P., F.A.S.L., Physician to St. Thomas's Hospital and to the Hospital for Diseases of the Chest, Victoria Park - - - -65 in. Observations on the Past and Present Populations of the New World. By William Bollaert, F.A.S.L., Corresponding Member of the University of Chile, Ethnological Society £>f London, of New York, etc. - 73 iv. On the Two Principal Forms of Ancient British and Gaulish Skulls. By John Thuenam, M.D., F.S.A., F.A.S.L. - 120 v. Introduction to the Palaeography of America : or, Ob- servations on Ancient Picture and Figurative Writing in the New World; on the Fictitious Writing in North America ; on the Quipu of the Peruvians, and Examination of Spurious Quipus. By William Bollaert, F.A.S.L., Hon. Sec. A.S.L. - - 169 vi. Viti, and its Inhabitants. By W. T. Pritchard, F.R.O.S., F.A.S.L. 195 vn. Some Account of the Astronomy of the Red Man of the New World ; including the " Telescopic Device" of the Mound Builders of the United States ; another Examination of the Stone 'Zodiac of the Aztecs ; their Vlll CONTENTS. PAGE Method of obtaining a Meridian Line, etc. ; Astronomy of Central America, with recent Discovery of the Maya ; Hieroglyphic Alphabet ; the Stone Lunar Calendars of the Chibchas of the Bogota, and pro- bable Use of the Gnoinon there ; the recently dis- covered Gold- Calendar of the Peruvians and Telescope Tube ; their Gnomons, etc. By William Bollaert, F.A.S.L., Hon. Sec. A.S.L. - - -210 viii. The Neanderthal Skull : its Peculiar Conformation ex- plained Anatomically. By Joseph Barnard Davis, M.D., F.S.A., F.A.S.L. - - - - 281 ix. On the Discovery of large Kist-vaens on the " Muckle Heog" in the Island of Unst (Shetland), containing Urns of CMoritic Schist. By. George E. Roberts, F.G.S., Hon. Sec. A.S.L. , etc., with notes on the Human Remains by C. Carter Blake, F.G.S., Assist- ant-Secretary A.S.L., etc. .... 296 x. Notes on certain Matters connected with the Dahoman. By Richard F. Burton, late Commissioner to Dahome, Vice-President of the Anthropological Society of London - - - - - - 308 xi. Notes on Certain Anthropological Matters respecting the South Sea Islanders (the Samoans). By W. T. Pritchard, F.R.G.S., F.A.S.L. - - - 322 xii. On the Phallic Worship of India. By Edward Sellon. 327 xni. The History of Anthropology. By T. Bendyshe, M.A., F.A.S.L., Fellow of King's College, Cambridge ; Vice- President of the Anthropological Society of London - 335 xiv. On the two principal forms of Ancient British and Gaulish Skulls. Part II. With Appendix of Tables of Measurement. By John Thurnam, M.D., F.S.A., F.A.S.L. - - - - - - 459 Appendix. On the Weight of the Brain and Capacity of the Cranial Cavity of a Negro. By Thomas B. Peacock, M.D., F.R.C.P., FA.S.L. 520 MEMOIRS HEAD BEFORE THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, I. — On the Negro's Place in Nature * By James Hunt, Ph.D., F.S.A., F.K.S.L., F.A.S.L., Foreign Associate of the Anthropological Society of Paris, Honorary Fellow of the Ethnological Society of London, Corresponding Member of the Upper Hesse Society for Natural and Medical Science, etc., etc., and President of the Anthropological Society of London. I peopose in this communication to discuss the physical and mental characters of the Negro, with a view of determining not only his position in animated nature, but also the station to be assigned to him in the genus homo. I shall necessarily have to go over a wide field, and cannot hope to treat the subject in an exhaustive manner. I shall be amply satisfied if I succeed in directing the attention of my scientific friends to a study of this most important and hitherto nearly neglected branch of the great science of Anthropology. It is not a little remarkable that the subject I propose to bring before you this evening is one which has never been dis- cussed before a scientific audience in this Metropolis. In France, in America, and in Germany, the physical and mental characters of the Negro have been frequently discussed, and England alone has neglected to pay that attention to the question which its importance demands. I shall, therefore, make no apology for bringing this subject in its entirety under your consideration, although I should have preferred discussing each point in detail. I hope, however, this even- ing to bring before you facts and opinions that will lay a good foundation for future inquiry and discussion. Although I shall * Read Nov. 17, 1863. Z HUNT ON THE NEGRO S PLACE IN NATUEE. dwell chiefly on the physical, mental, and moral characters of the Negro, I shall, at the same time, not hesitate to make such practical deductions as appear to be warranted from the facts we now have at hand, and trust that a fair and open discussion of this subject may eventually be the means of re- moving much of the misconception which appears to prevail on this subject both in the minds of the public, and too frequently in the minds of scientific men. While, however, I shall honestly and without reservation state the conclusions at which I have arrived, I shall at the same time listen with deep attention and respect to those who differ from me, and who support their opinions by facts, by the opinions of some travellers, or by their own observations. Heretofore, however, it has hap- pened that much human passion has been introduced, not only into public discussions, but especially into the literature on this subject. Even such a generally fair and philosophic writer as Professor Waitz has accused men of science with promulgating views which are practically in favour of the so-called " slavery" of the Confederate States of America. Many other scientific men could be named who have equally been guilty of imputing such unfair and uncharitable motives. While, on the other hand, writers thus accused retort by applying to their oppo- nents all sorts of epithets. One author, for instance, exclaims : " How I loathe that hypocrisy which claims the same mental, moral, and physical equality for the Negro which the whites possess."* No good can come of discussion conducted in such a spirit. If we wish to discover what is the truth, we must give each other credit for honesty, and not impute base or interested motives. In the first place, I would explain that I understand by Negro, the dark, woolly-headed African found in the neighbour- hood of the Congo river. Africa contains, like every other continent, a large number of different races, and these have become very much mixed. These races may be estimated as a whole at about 150 millions, occupying* a territory of between 13 and 14 millions of square miles. I shall not enter into any disquisition as to the great diversity of physical conformation * Negro Mania : being an examination of the falsely assumed equality of the various races of man • by John Campbell, Philadelphia, 1851, p. 11. HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 3 that is found in different races, but shall simply say that my remarks will be confined to the typical woolly-headed Negro. Not only is there a large amount of mixed blood in Africa, but there are also apparently races of very different physical cha- racters, and in as far as they approach the typical Negro, so far will my remarks apply to them. But I shall exclude en- tirely from consideration all those who have European, Asiatic, Moorish or Berber blood in their veins. My object is to attempt to determine the position which one well-defined race occupies in the genus homo, and the relation or analogy which the negro race bears to animated nature generally. We have recently heard discussions respecting Man's place in nature : but it seems to me that we err in grouping all the different races of Man under one generic name, and then compare them with the anthropoid Apes. If we wish to make any advance in discussing such a subject, we must not speak of man generally, but must select one race or species, and draw our comparison in this manner. I shall adopt this plan in comparing the Negro with the European, as represented by the German, Frenchman, or Englishman. Our object is not to support some foregone conclusion, but to en- deavour to ascertain what is the truth, by a careful and con- scientious examination and discussion of the facts before us. In any conclusion I may draw respecting the Negro's cha- racter, no decided opinion will be implied as to the vexed ques- tion of man's origin. If the negro could be proved to be a distinct species from the European, it would not follow that they had not the same origin — it would only render their identity of origin less likely. I shall, also, have to dwell much on the analogies existing between the Negro and the Anthropoid Apes ; but these analogies do not necessarily in- volve relationship. The Negro race, in some of its characters, is the lowest of existing races, while in others it approaches the highest type of European : and this is the case with other savage races. We find the same thing in the Anthropoid Apes, where some species resemble man in one character, and some in another. The father of English Ethnology, Dr. Prichard, thought that the original pair must have been Negroes, and that mankind b 2 4 HUNT ON THE NEGKO S PLACE IN NATUEE. descended from them. His words are:* — " It must be con- cluded that the process of nature in the human species is the transmutation of the characters of the Negro into those of the European, or the evolution of white varieties in black races of men. We have seen that there are causes existing which are capable of producing such an alteration, but we have no facts which induce us to suppose that the reverse of this change could in any circumstance be effected. This leads us to the in- ference that the primitive stock of men were Negroes, which has every appearance of truth." It is not a little remarkable that although Blumenbach and Prichard were both advocates for the unity of man, they materially differed in their argumen- tation. Blumenbach saw, in his five varieties of man, nothing but degeneracy from some ideal perfect type. Prichard, on the contrary, asserted he could imagine no arguments, or knew of no facts, to support such a conclusion. Prichard, however, was not alone in this supposition; for Pallas, f Lacepede,J Hunter, § Doornik, || and Link,^[ were also inclined to the same view. We must not dwell on such speculations ; for on the present occasion we shall not touch on the origin of man : it will be enough if we assist in removing some of the mis- conceptions regarding the Negro-race existing in the minds of some men of science. It is too generally taught that the Negro only differs from the European in the colour of his skin and the peculiarity of his hair. The skin and hair are, however, by no means the only characters which distinguish the Negro from the European, even physically ; whilst the mental and moral difference is still greater than the demon- * Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, 1813, p. 233. f Travels through the Southern Provinces of the Russian Empire, in 1793-4. J Vue Gendrale, etc. Paris, 1822. § Disputatio inauguralis de Hominum Varietatibus et earum causis exponens, etc. Joannes Hunter. Edinburgh, 1775. || Wysgeerig-natuurkunding Onderzoek, etc. Amst., 1808. IT On this point Link (Die Urwelt, etc., Berlin, 1821-2) says : — " Soemmering' s investigations (Die Korperliche Verschiedenheit des Negers, Frankfurt, 1785,) show how much more the Negro in his internal structure resembles the Ape than the European. The latest productions of the animal world were mammals, and it stands to reason that the most recent race should be that which is the most remote from the other mammals, and that race should be the oldest which approaches them most, namely, the Negro. Colour, also, confirms this everywhere, when we observe white and black animals of the same species. The latter always form the original stock, the former the deviation." HUNT ON THE NEGRO S PLACE IN NATURE. 5 strated physical difference. In the first place, what are the physical distinctions between the Negro and the European ? The average height of the Negro* is less than that of the * " The stature of the Negro approaches the middle size. The tribes above the middle stature are probably more numerous than those below it . I know of no instances of dwarfism among Negroes, though the monuments of Egypt show that there were dwarfs among the Negroes at a very remote epoch. Nevertheless, giants and dwarfs occupy a certain place in the ideas and stories of the Negro, as well as tailed men. We know what to believe as regards the latter point. With respect to dwarfs, the Bosjesmen seem to answer the ideas of the Negroes, for they play in their stories the same part as the Hyperboreans in the traditions of ancient Greece. Obesity is exceptionally found in males of high rank, and more frequently in the women. The dis- position to grow fat is less rare among the short than among the tall Negroes. The taller are frequently lank and very angular. " On examining the physiognomy of the Negro, I would first observe that the palpebral fissure is narrow and horizontal ; but the aperture of the nostrils presents instead of a raised triangle a tranverse ellipsis ; that the point of the nose is obtuse, round, and thick ; that the ear is small, detached from the head, with a lobule little separated. To this must be added the cheeks stuffed by the masseters, the conformation of the jaws and lips, and the ensemble of the physiognomy of the Negro presents a singular mixture. The inferior part reflects sensuality, not to say more ; above the mouth we might say it is the face of a new-born child enlarged. The absence of expression in the features produces the effect of an unfinished work. The change of colour, so significant in the white man, that mute language, but more effective than the spoken word which moves us, is almost entirely absent in our African brothers. The black veil which covers the whole, even withdraws the play of the muscles from the eye of the observer, unless it be in moments of passionate agitation. " The eye alone enables us to judge what passes in the depth of the mind. This mirror is sufficiently bright to enable us to distinguish two classes, which may be compared to the choleric and phlegmatic temperaments. The travellers who have observed the Negro in his native country indicate some expressive, and, so to say, national shades, which distinguish the peoples of the Sudan. This is in harmony with the differences in features, stature, we shall speak of in the sequel. We find thus among the authors the terms, " dignified and proud, jovial and gay, intelligent and cunning ;" also, " insignificant and inexpressive, melancholy and morose, dull and stupid." Thus the Negro participates also in this respect largely of the nature of man in general ; but it cannot be said of him what was applied to the American, " Gentleness hovers on his lips, and ferocity gushes from his eyes." " The neck of the Negro is generally short ; it is scarcely 8 to 9 centimetres, excepting very tall subjects, when it attains 10 centimetres ; the prominence of the larynx is rounded ; the shoulders are less powerful than in the Turanian or Aryan. The Negro prefers carrying his burden on the head. The Negro is shrunk in the flank, the abdomen frequently relaxed; the umbilicus, situated nearer the pubis than in the European, is slightly prominent. " After these short remarks on the conformation of the trunk, we must fix our attention on the limbs. We have already indicated the proportion of the parts which compose them. It now remains to describe their particular form. The arm and the forearm of the Negro present neither the muscular contours of the European nor the rounded shape of the American. The palm of the hand, as well as the sole of the foot, are always of a bistre colour. The palm is narrow and flattened ; that is to say, the thenar and hypothenar eminences, as well as the tactile cushions, are little developed. The folds of the palm are very simple and rudimentary. The fingers are elongated ; of little thick- ness at the ends ; the nails are flat, bistre coloured, and rather widened at the end. 6 HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. European, and although there are occasionally exceptions, the skeleton of the Negro is generally heavier, and the bones larger and thicker in proportion to the muscles than those of the Euro- pean. The bones are also whiter, from the greater abundance of calcareous salts. The thorax is generally laterally compressed, and, in thin individuals, presents a cylindrical form, and is smaller in proportion to the extremities. The extremities of the Negro differ from other races more by proportion than by form : the arm usually reaches below the middle of the femur. The leg is on the whole longer, but is made to look short on account of the ankle being only between lgin. to l|in. above the ground; this character is often seen in mulattoes. The foot is flat, and the heel is both flat and long. Burmeister has pointed out the " In the inferior limb we observe the fold of the buttocks less rounded, the thighs more angular in front and specially at the back ; the knees approxi- mated ; the calf usually weak, short, and laterally compressed ; the feet spread out ; the heel wide and prominent ; the lateral borders of the feet straight, their anterior portion widened ; the great toes short and small. The foot is rarely highly arched ; on the other hand it is elongated, and what it wants in height is made up by the tibia, which is longer in proportion. " This conformation of the foot of the Negro has induced a learned naturalist to take the foot as the starting point to fix the type of races. But the particulars given by M. Simonot, on the diversities met with in this re- spect among the peoples of the Senegal, which accord with the reports of other travellers and my own observations, throw doubt upon the constancy of the conformation. On the other hand, it is certain that the type of the inferior limb, as I have described it, is the appanage of the majority of Negroes. The flat foot is, however, also met with in a large number of races approaching more the Aryan than the Negro ; for instance, in some tribes of America and Polynesia. It is also frequent in Russia, and it frequently influences the re- form of the military service in the rest of Europe. The shortening of the great toe, combined with a slight distance from the rest, has been noted in the Negro, in some races of Malaisia, and the Hottentot as a constant character approaching these peoples to the ape. The importance of the great toe is in- contestable, for it is the first bone which disappears from the extremities on descending the animal series. I think it therefore necessary well to examine this point as regards the Negro. Now it is true that the great toe in the Negro rarely rises above the second, but neither is it often shorter. This applies also to the pretended lateral distance which may moreover be owing to the employment of thongs in their shoes, as done by the Arabs, for instance. It is clear that all that has been asserted relative to the opposition of the great toe of the Negro is reduced to the simple question : Is there a muscle, or at least an aponeurotic tendon, subservient to this pretended use ? No- where, and never has anything like it been discovered in the human genus. But a slight shortening of the great toe undoubtedly exists, not merely among the Negro tribes, but also in ancient and modern Egyptians, and even in some of the most beautiful types of Caucasian females I have seen. This character is not merely constant in the ancient Egyptian statues, it is also seen where art has fixed the characters of the ideal man, namely, in the sculptures of Greece. I am, however, as far from wishing to establish the identity of the foot of the Negro with that ideal type, as I am to class the inhabitants of Alsace among the Negroes, because many of them present the same peculiarity. (Pruner Bey. Memoire sur les Negres, 1861.) HUNT ON THE NEGRO'S PLACE IN NATURE. 7 resemblance of the foot and the position of the toes of the Negro to those of the ape. The toes are small, the first sepa- rated from the second by a free space.* Many observers have noticed the fact that the Negro frequently uses the great toe as a thumb. The knees are rather bent, the calves are little deve- loped and the upper part of the thigh rather thin. The upper thigh-bone of the Negro has not so decided a resemblance to that of the ape as that of the bushman.t He rarely stands quite upright, his short neck and large development of the cervical muscles give great strength to the neck. The shoulders, arms, * " In most of the Africans the heel projects. Froin the skin of their feet being often of a horny hardness, sandals appear to me much better adapted than the shoe, as it allows of greater flexibility and movement. Lawrence in his ' Lectures on Man' says, that the calves of the leg in the Negro race are very high, so as to encroach upon the hams. His observation I can fully corroborate, as well as Dr. Winterbottom's remark respecting the largeness of the feet, and the thinness and flexibility of the fingers and toes." — Sierra Leone, by Robert Clarke, p. 49. Mr. Louis Fraser also says, " He will pick up the most minute object with his toes ; his ' great ' toe is particularly flexible." f " It is quite certain that the ape which most nearly approaches man, in the totality of its organisation, is either the chimpanzee or the gorilla ; and as it makes no practical difference, for the purposes of my present argument which is selected for comparison, on the one hand, with man, and on the other hand, with the rest of the primates, I shall select the latter (so far as its organisation is known) as a brute now so celebrated in prose and verse, that all must have heard of him, and have formed some conception of his appearance. I shall take up as many of the most important points of differ- ence between man and this remarkable creature, as the space at my disposal will allow me to discuss, and the necessities of the argument demand ; and I shall inquire into the value and magnitude of these differences, when placed side by side with those which separate the gorilla from other animals of the same order. In the general proportions of the body and lirubs there is a re- markable difference between the gorilla and man, which at once strikes the eye. The gorilla's brain-case is smaller, its trunk larger, its lower limbs shorter, its upper limbs longer in proportion than those of man. I find that the vertebral column of a full-grown gorilla, in the Museum of the Eoyal College of Surgeons, measures 27 inches along its anterior curvature, from the upper edge of the atlas or first vertebra of the neck to the lower ex- tremity of the sacrum; that the arm, without the hand, is 31^ inches long; that the leg, without the foot, is 26^ inches long ; that the hand is 9| inches long ; the foot 11^ inches long. In other words, taking the length of the spinal column as 100, the arm equals 115, the leg 96, the hand 36, and the foot 41. In the skeleton of a male Bosjesman, in the same collection, the proportions, by the same measurement, to the spinal column taken as 100, are — the arm 78, the leg 110, the hand 26, and the foot 32. In a woman of the same race the arm 83, and the leg 120, the hand and foot remaining the same. In a European skeleton I find the arm to be 80, the leg 117, the hand 26, the foot 35. Thus the leg is not so different as it looks at first sight, in its j)roportions to the spine in the gorilla and in the man, being very slightly shorter than the spine in the former, and between one-tenth and one-fifth longer than the spine in the latter. The foot is longer and the hand much longer in the gorilla ; but the great difference is caused by the arms, which are very much longer than the spine in the gorilla, very much shorter than the spine in the man." — Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature, by T. H. Huxley, 1863, p. 70. Q HUNT ON THE NEGRO S PLACE IN NATURE. and legs are all weak in comparison to the corresponding limbs in the European. The hand is always relatively larger than in the European : the palm is flat, the thumb narrow, long, and very weak. Dr. Pruner Bey has published the subjoined measurements* of the isolated bones in Europeans and Negroes. From Dr. Broca's careful investigations, it results that the radius is decidedly longer in Negroes than in Europeans in proportion to the length of the humerus. f The proportion of the radius to the humerus, taken at 100, being in the Negro 79.40, and in the European 73.93. The great distinguishing characters of the Negro are the fol- lowing : the forehead is flat, low, and laterally compressed. The nose and whole face is flattened, and the Negro thus has a facial angle generally between 70-75 degs.,. occasionally only 65 degs. The nasal cavities and the orbits are spacious. J The skull is very * M. Pruner gives the following measures of the bones of the limbs in centimeters. Designation of Mean Measures. Individual Measures. Negroes. Europeans. Negroes. Europeans. Measures. Males. Fe- males. Males. Fe- males. Man. Wo- man. Man. 160'0 45 0 360 24-0 34-0 27-0 20-0 Wo- man. New- born lufaut Child 5 yrs. old. Total height of Skeleton 160-04 44-72 148-66 42.50 172-23 47-00 3876 25-00 33-72 25-46 18-84 164-42 44-00 37-71 2357 34-57 24-85 18-14 160-0 43-0 39-0 23-5 31-5 24-5 19-0 1560 41-5 38'5 21-5 31-0 25 0 18-0 157-0 42-0 360 23 0 31-0 21-0 17-0 42-25 6-7 6-0 6-2 5-75 101-0 25 0 Tibia 38-09, 35-33 24-501 21-83 3F27: 29-50 24'63: 23-00 18-54 17-00 22 0 18-0 13-0 " N.B. — " The preceding measures having been taken on skeletons, are only strictly correct as regards the isolated bones : femur, tibia, humerus, and radius. The lengths of hand and foot, and the total height of the skeleton, can only be approximative, as they are more or less modihed by the mounters of the skeletons. " By the side of the mean measures I have placed six individual measure- ments, viz. : a Negro and European of the same stature, and a European female and a Negress of the same height ; and also a new-born European infant and a European child five years old. I wished to add a European child from thirteen to fifteen years old. It is at that age, according to M. Carus, that our children most approach the Negro by the relative dimensions of their extremities. " The skeletons of the European females, which served for measurement, are in the gallery of the museum, having been placed at my disposal by the kindness of M. Quatrefages. Nearly all of them are those of females above the middle height." f Bull de la Soc. Antliro., iii., p. 162. % Facial cranium. — " Before considering the anatomical details of the facial cranium, it is indispensable to note the disproportion existing between the size of the face and the cerebral cranium. This character, already indicated HUNT ON THE NEGRO'S PLACE IN NATUEE. *9 liard and unusually thick, enabling the Negroes to fight with, or carry heavy weights, on their heads. The coronal region by Cuvier, depends chiefly on the excessive development of the jaws and the sLze of the cavities of the organs of sense. The orbits are large, funnel-shaped, with obtuse angles ; their inferior margin is thick, round, more advancing than the superior margin ; the inferior is flattened ; the depression lodging the lachrymal gland is very deep. The lachrymal canal is large, and almost exclusively formed by the nasal apophysis of the maxillary. The bones of the nose are short, narrow but quadrangular, very rarely triangular, and ex- ceptionally soldered together, always joined at obtuse angles; they are some- times on the same plane. The nasal aperture is large, of an irregular triangular form, wide, without a spine, or only the rudiment of one. The root of the depressed nose is only exceptionally in a right line with the fore- head ; the width of the root of the nose increases the distance between the eyes a little more in the Aryan, but less than in the Turanian race. Some- times the nose of the Negro resembles, by its round aperture, that of the Hottentot. The cornets, especially the middle, are swelled out ; the vertical lamina of the ethmoid is spread out, and the vomer stands out. " The malar bones are neither large nor high, but are either embossed in the centre of their external surface, or distorted outwards by their inferior border. The superior jaw presents frequently in its malar apophysis a vertical pit; then the cheekbones form an angle, and their prominence appears great. When, on the contrary, the apophysis is flattened, and the inferior border of the malar is much advanced, this character, joined with the narrowness of the forehead, gives to the face a form approaching the pyra- midal shape. The prominence of the external orbital apophyses of the coronal, the projection of the malar bones, and the antero-posterior direction of their frontal apophyses produce a malar angle less open than in the Aryan race ; whilst, on the contrary, the lateral compression of the anterior lobe of the brain is marked by rather a right angle formed by the external wall of the orbit with the temple. The ascending apophyses of the maxillary have their internal border more or less curved according to the shape of the nose. " Prognathism, that is to say, the inclination of the alveolar border of the superior jaw downwards and forwards from behind constitutes one of the most constant characters in the skeleton of the Negro. Three degrees are dis- tinguished : — " (1.) The alveolar arch, elliptic instead of parabolic, generally convex throughout, rarely concave at its external part, is alone inclined, and the teeth are vertical. " (2.) The direction of the teeth is that of the jaw. In these two cases the superior incisors pass a little beyond the superior dental arch. " (3.) The highest degree, which may be called double prognathism, presents itself when the inferior incisors are, like the superior, projected obliquely ; then the junction of the two rows of incisors form the angle of a chisel. This latter form is not the most frequent. But in double prognathism, cases have been observed where, by a slight shortening of the horizontal rami of the inferior maxillary, the superior incisors presented upon their posterior sur- face triangular facettes produced by the points of the inferior incisors. " The molar teeth of the superior jaw descend sometimes lower than the incisors, or are at least at a level with them, but rarely do the molars in the Negro participate in prognathism, as is the case with some Australians, or Oceanic Negroes. Never is, to my knowledge, the prognathism of the Negro confined to a simple inclination of the alveoli. I have only remarked this disposition in some female crania of the Aryan race of India. "The palatine arch, and especially the alveolar apophyses are not merely much elongated, but more enlarged in the Negro than among the Aryans. This arch is, on the average, about sixty -five millimeters in length in the Negro, and only fifty-eight in the Aryan. 10 HUNT ON THE NEGKO's PLACE IN NATURE. is arched, but not so much developed as in the European woman. The posterior portion of the skull is increased, in proportion to that of the anterior part being diminished. But M. Gratiolet has shown that the unequal development of the anterior lobes is not the sole cause of the psychological inequalities of human races. The same scientific observer has also stated that in the superior, or frontal races, the cranial sutures close much later than in the inferior or occipital races. The frontal races he considers superior not simply from the form of the skull, but because they have an absolutely more voluminous brain. The frontal cavity being much larger than the occipital, a great loss of space is caused by the depression of the anterior region, which is not compensated for by the in- crease of the occipital region. From these researches it ap- pears that in the Negro the growth of the brain is sooner arrested than in the European. This premature union of the bones of the skull may give a clue to much of the mental inferiority which is seen in the Negro race. There can be no "The inferior jaw, always more or less massive, is distinguished by a chin, retracted, generally large and rounded, rarely pointed, and by the thickness and length of its external rami, Its ascending rami are large, short, and then* junction with the horizontal are rarely at right angles. The coronoid apophyses are always large, with an elliptic surface, flattened or oblique on its external half. The glenoid cavities are large and mostly of little depth. The teeth of the Negro are long, large, strikingly white, and not easily used up. The inferior molars sometimes present five tubercles, an anomaly which is sporadically found in all races of mankind. The jaw of the Negro never presented to me any trace of an intermaxillary bone (I owe to M. E. Rous- seau's kindness the firm conviction of the non-existence of the intermaxillary bone in man in the normal state. His treatise places this important fact, now for ever acquired by anatomical science, beyond any doubt), though the incisive suture may be perfectly distinguished in the adult Negro at a period when the cranial sutures are mostly obliterated. " The consistence of the cranial bones of the Negro is always considerable • but their thickness varies much, chiefly according to the volume of the cranium. Placed by the side of the Oceanian Negro, for instance, the cranium of the African would in this, as well as other respects, produce the impression of belonging to a civilised man, opposed to that of a savage, if this term be applicable to a man who, more or less, lives in a state of nature. " Before quitting the examination of the cranium, I cannot pass over the facial angle of the Negro. It naturally varies, as in the other races, accord- ing to the greater or lesser inclination of the face, according to the develop- ment of the frontal sinuses ; and, as regards the conformation of the face, it sinks, though rarely to 70°. But, on the other hand, the frontal angle of the Negro reaches to 80°. We, however, attach but a relative value to these two angles, for though the median line of the forehead is rather vertical in the Negro, the cranium is faulty, as regards the forehead, by an evident lateral contraction." (Pruner-Bey) . HUNT ON THE NEGRO'S PLACE IN NATURE. 11 doubt that at puberty a great change takes place in relation to psychical development ; and in the Negro there appears to be an arrested development of the mind exactly harmonising with the physical formation. Young Negro children are nearly as intelligent as European children ; but the older they grow the less intelligent they become. They exhibit, when young, an animal liveliness for play and tricks far surpassing the European child. The young ape's skull resembles more the Negro's head than the aged ape : thus "showing a striking analogy in their craniological development. It has been pointed out that there were four forms of the hu- man pelvis, and that they might be classified under the following heads : — The oval (European), round (American), square (Mon- gol) , and oblong (African) . The latest researches of Dr. Pruner Bey enable him to affirm that this law is perfectly applicable to the Negro. The head of the Negro is the best type of the long skull, with small development of the frontal region. The form of the pelvis is narrow, conical, or cuneiform, and small in all its diameters. Yrolik has asserted that the pelvis of the male Negro bears a great resemblance to that of the lower mammalia. With respect to the capacity of the cranium of the Negro, great difference of opinion has prevailed.* Tiede- * Dr. Pruner -Bey gives the following interesting summary of the Osteo- logical peculiarities of the Negro race : — Of the Cranium. — " Cerebral cranium. — The antero-posterior diameter of the cerebral cranium approaches 19 centimeters ; the transversal diameter is about 13.6; the face measures, from the chin to the hair, 18 centimeters; and the distance of the zygomatic arches is 13 centimeters. I class the cranium of the Negro in the category of harmonic dolichocephali. Cerebral Vertebras. — " The coronal bone is rather short and narrow than re- ceding backwards, frequently distinguished by slender superciliary arches, rarely by frontal bumps, but usually by a protuberance on the median line, which corresponds with the third primordial convolution of the brain. A slight compression is clearly marked on the two sides of the protuberance. The nasal apophysis is always more or less large, according to the conforma- tion of the nose. The orbital apophyses, large at the base, are more cru-ved downwards than outwards. The temporal portion of the coronal presents frequently on the top a slight dilatation, at the bottom on the contrary it is compressed. The contours vary, according to the general form of the cranium, when this is very much elongated and compressed on the sides, the coronal is more elliptic, and more parabolic when the contrary is the case. The frontal sinuses exist ; they are but moderately developed as all the aerial reservoirs. The stimmit of the cranium presents along the sagittal suture an ogival or flattened, rarely vaulted, conformation. The great extent of the second cranial vetebra, and its predominance over the first and third, is clearly de- fined, specially at the posterior part where the parietals slope gently down towards the occiput, whilst their descent towards the temples is always very 12 HUNT ON THE NEGRO'S PLACE IN NATURE. mann's researches, although very limited, have until recently been accepted as conclusive. He stated it as his opinion that " The brain of the Negro is, upon the whole, quite as large as that of the European and other human races ; the weight of the brain, its dimensions, and the capacity of the cavum cranii prove abrupt. In cases where the cranium of the male negro approaches the female type, the posterior descent of the parietals approaches a vertical line, and the horizontal section represents a wedge, instead of an ellipsis, which predomi- nates in the typical form of the Negro cranium. " When the cranium is viewed in profile, the temples appear deeply hollowed in front, flattened or elongated backwards. The anterior margins of the temporals are frequently joined to the coronal, on account of the shortening of the great alee of the sphenoid. The parietal knobs are lower and less marked in the male than in the female, and the superior semicircular lines, though well marked, reach rarely the arch of the cranium. The squamous part of the temporal is relatively low and long ; its margins are irregular. The zygomatic arches are convex, rarely flattened ; the meatus auditorius presents a large and usually round orifice. The greatest width of the cranium is thus as frequently found at the posterior and superior angle of the squamous temporal as at the level of the parietal protuberances. Taken from this point, the cranium diminishes in breadth towards the occiput, especially when the latter projects, which is seen in most cases. There is a rather striking parallelism between the coronal and the superior part of the occipital squama ; the latter being relatively small, curved, narrow, like the frontal squama and in the elliptic crania it is arched in the centre. In this case its margins intercept an obtuse angle ; in the contrary case they are parabolic. The "Wormian bones may be met with in the crania of Negroes, and even form a complete series along the lambdoid suture ; but these cases are rare. "The base of the cranium is always relatively narrow ; that part of the occipital squama where the muscles are attached, presents sometimes a hori- zontal, but more frequently a slightly inclined, long, and narrow plane. In the first form the superior part of the squama rises more to a right angle towards the lambdoid suture than in the second form. The surface of the squama, marked by the imprint of the muscles, represents a truncated pyramid the base of which touches the anterior border of the great occipital foramen. This aperture, always of a more or less elongated shape, is slightly inclined from before backwards, so that its posterior border at least is above the level of the palatine arch. Its position in relation to the centre of gravity is in accord with dolichocephaly. (The distance from the occipital hole to the base of the nose and the alveolar margins of the incisors, is naturally more considerable in the Negro than in the orthognathous races ; but the distance of this hole to the base of the forehead, presented only slight differences. In the brachycephalous races, on the contrary, especially in those with flattened occiput, the occipital foramen is farther back. It is, moreover, difficult to find crania in which this aperture corresponds exactly to the centre of the cranium, as asserted by some anatomists.) The condyles of the occiput are elongated, narrow, much inclined. The petrous portion of the temporal volumi- nous. The basilar bone is long, narrow, slightlyinclined from before backwards. The development of the mastoid apophyses corresponds with the greater or lesser massiveness of the cranium ; the styloid apophyses are frequently much elongated ; the pterygoid apophyses are large, distant, and more or less in- clined. The union of the palate with the maxillary is usually formed by an indented or undulated, instead of by a plain suture. The palate is elongated, elliptic rather than parabolic, superficial, or deep. It is only in exceptional cases that its width exceeds its length. All the apertures at the base of the cranium are very spacious. We are at the same time struck by the elliptic contours of this base and its general flatness, which renders the elevation of the borders of the occipital foramen more perceptible." HUNT ON THE NEGRO'S PLACE IN NATURE. 13 tins fact."* All recent researches have, however, done much to show that Tiedemann's investigations are not only unsatisfacT tory, but that his deduction is not warranted by the facts which we now have at hand. Blumenbaclr's, Knox's and Lawrence's conclusions did not accord with Tiedemann's. But the most satisfactory researches on this point are those made by the late Dr. Morton, of America, and his successor, Dr. J. A. Meigs, of Philadelphia. Dr. Meigs, in following out the researches of his predecessor, has found that in size of the brain, the Negro comes after the European, Fin, Syro-Egyptian, Mongol, Malay, Semitic, American Indian, and the Esquimaux ; but that the brain of the Negro-race takes precedence of the ancient civilised races of America, the Egyptian of all periods, the Hindoo, the Hottentot, the Australian, and the Negroes of Polynesia. Thus we see that the Negro has at least six well-defined races above him, and six below him, taking* the internal cavity of the skull as a test. Pruner Bey says that his own experience with the external measurements did not yield essentially different results. But we now know that it is necessary to be most cautious in accepting the capacity of the cranium simply, as any absolute test of the intellectual power of any race. The recent researches of Huschke on this point are most sig- nificant and valuable. He gives the following mean measure- ments of the surface of the cranium, viz. : — Male Negro. Male European. 53206 square mill i metres. 59305 square millimetres. Female. Women. 49868 „ „ 53375 Relative size of three cranial vertebree expressed in hun- dredths (1). Male Female Negro. Negress. European. European. 1st Vertebra - - 7-7 8-1 9-7 9-68 2nd and 3rd together - 92-3 91-9 90-3 90-32 100-0 100-0 100-0 100-00 2nd Vertebra alone 75-7 76-4 72-7 74-1 3rd Vertebra - - 24-3 23-6 27-3 25-9 100-0 100-0 100-0 100-0 " It is surprising," says Pruner Bey, who quotes these tables, * Philosophical Transactions, 1836. 14 HUNT ON THE NEGRO S PLACE IN NATURE. " to observe to what a degree the mean capacity of the Negro cranium* approaches in its ensemble that of the European female, and particularly how much in both the middle vertebra pre- dominates above the two others ; whilst on the contrary, in the European male, the posterior vertebra, and particularly the anterior, are more developed in relation to the middle vertebra than they are in the Negro and in the European female. It * Pruner Bey quotes the following Table respecting the cerebral cranium of the Ne^ro.* DESIGNATION OF MEASURES. Mean Measures in Millimeters. Mean of 24 Negros. Mean of 12 Negresses. 1°. DIAMETEE (by Compass). Antero-posterior Vertical (-Inferior frontal I Superior frontal Transverse J Bi-temporal Diameters i Bi-auricular [ Bi-parietal L Bi-mastoidian 2<\ CUEVES (by Metrical tape). Horizontal circumference Transversal bi-auricular curve Vertical antero-posterior circumference ( Frontal part \ Parietal part ( Occipital part (-Length from the occipital I foramen . Distance from the ante- rior margin of the fora- I men to the frontal emi- ^ nence Decomposed in : 1°. Middle part 2°. Inferior part - 3°. OTHEE MEASUEES. Distance in a straight 1 to Nasal eminence . line from the meatus J- to occipital protube- auditorius . . ) ranee Dimensions of the occipital < length . foramen . . . t breadth 4°. MILLESIMAL EATIO. Circumferences horizontal circumference . vertical I length (antero-posterior diameter) Diameters \ breadth (parietal diameter) (height (vertical diameter) 186.4 124!8 100.0 113.4 125.0 112.7 134.2 117.7 511.7 305.2 504.0 105.0" 136.5 ; 114.4, 35.9. 112.2- 113.1 355.9 148.1 176.4 95.8 108.7 119.2 108.0 130.0 111.6 492.5 295.5 489.8 108.3" 128.3 109.9. 34.0- 104.3 ■ 107.1 110.9 107.0 35.9 34.0 30.3 28.0 1000 1000 985 984 1000 1000 720 737 669 585 364.5 138.3 * See Memoir es de la Socidte a" Anthropologic, 1861. HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 15 should be remarked that the occipital vertebra of the Negress is more spacious than that of the Negro." Tiedemann asserted that the brain of the Negro did not resemble that of the Oran-titan more than that of the Buro- ]3ean, except in the more symmetrical distribution of the gyri and sulci. Tiedemann also denied Sommering-'s assertion that the nerves of the Negro are larger, in proportion to the brain, than in the European ; but Pruner Bey has confirmed Scunner- ing's opinion. There seems to be, generally, less difference between the Negro and the Negress,* than between the European male and female : but on the other hand, the Negress, with the shortened humerus, presents a disadvantage "which one might be tempted to look at as a return to the animal form" (Pruner). Law- rence says,f " the Negro structure approaches unequivocally * The Negress. — " Before reviewing the chief varieties which the Negro type offers to travellers, it is necessary to cast a glance at the Negress. " She possesses a cranium shorter, rounder, and wider in the posterior part of the middle vertebra ; the parietal protuberances are more prominent, the apertures of the orbits frequently nearly circular, characters which approach her a little to the European female. As regards -stature and the length of the hair, as well as in the proportions of the parts composing the inferior limb, the Negress resembles her husband more than the European female re- sembles her husband. As regards the latter point, it is not rare to find also in Europe, females of high stature and a muscular aspect. The features of the face do not, in the two sexes of the Sudan, present the same differences as in the Aryan race. The mammae are less rounded, but already more conical in early age. Their relaxing is rapid and excessive. This peculiarity is, however, though in a less degree, found in Oriental females in other places, and of different origin. The pelvis presents, as regards width, some advan- tage over that of the male ; the iliac bones are inclined towards the horizon, thinning towards the centre, without, however, being transparent ; the haunches are rounder, steatopygy (fatty lumps on the buttocks) is only ex- ceptionally met with. The neck of the matrix is large and elongated; the aperture of the vagina has a forward direction, despite of the inclination of the pelvis." (Pruner Bey.) f Mr. Lawrence thus summarises the chief physical characters of the Negro " The characters of the Ethiopian variety, as observed in the genuine Negro, tribes, may be thus summed up : — 1. Narrow and depressed forehead; the entire cranium contracted anteriorly ; the cavity less, both in its circumfer- ence and transverse measurements. 2. Occipital foramen and condyles placed farther back. 3. Large space for the temporal muscles. 4. Great develop- ment of the face. 5. Prominence of the jaws altogether, and particularly of their alveolar margins and teeth ; consequent obliquity of the facial line. 6. Superior incisors slanting. 7. Chin receding. 8. Very large and strong zygomatic arch projecting towards the front. 9. Large nasal cavity. 10. Small and flattened ossa nasi, sometimes consolidated, and running into a point above." — Lectures on Physiology, Zoology, and the Natural History of Man, 1819, p. 363. 16 HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. to that of the ape ;" while Bory St. Vincent,* and Fischerf do not greatly differ in their description of the anatomy of the Negro from the facts I have adduced. There is no doubt that the Negro brain J bears a great re- semblance to a European female or child's brain, and thus * Bory de St. Vincent (L'homme, Paris, 1827) says: — "Large; the skin black and entirely glossy, with the rete mucosum of Malpighi thicker and also black ; hah* black, woolly, felted together • the anterior part of the skull very narrow ; flattened on the vertex, and rounded behind • eyes large, subrotund, prominent, always damp, cornea yellowish, his tinted of a chestnut black, eye- brows very short • nose fiat (nasal bones flattened) • zygomatic arches pro- tuberant • ears of moderate size and prominent ; lips thick and brown ; inside of the ears bright red; jaws, especially the lower one, projecting; incisor teeth procumbent ; chin short, round, receding ; beard rare ; breasts pear- shaped, loose during milking ; thighs and shanks partially curved." f Fischer (Synopsis Mammalvum, 1829-30), says : — " The brain is less, and the origins of the nerves thicker than in the American races, an opposite con- dition prevailing in the Japetic races ; skull-cap one-ninth less ample than in the European, sutures more narrow; all the bones whiter; intermaxillary bone inclining above the chin ; pelvic bones broad ; muscles, blood, and bile of deep colour ; foetid sweat ; filthy ; voice sharp and shrieking ; nervous-phlegmatic temperament." % Pruner-Bey makes the following observations respecting the brain : " Soemmering had already observed that the peripheral nerves are larger, relative to the volume of the brain, in the Negro than in the white man. This fact is demonstrated in all its details by the beautiful preparation from the skilful hand of M. Jacquart, exhibited in the gallery of the Museum of Natural History. "The brain, narrow and elongated, presents on its surface always a brownish tint on account of a considerable injection of venous blood. The superficial veins are very large, and resemble by their stiffness the sinus of the dura mater. The grey matter shows in the interior a clear brown colour ; the white substance is yellowish. I am inclined to attribute this colour rather to the blood than to a special pigment. Melanotic patches may be met with in the meninges as elsewhere. Soemmering has observed blackish spots on the spinal marrow. The cortical layer of the grey substance of the cerebral hemispheres is of less thickness than in the European. Regarded in front the brain presents a rounded point ; from the top the parts appear grosser and less varied than in the European. The convolutions, especially the anterior and the lateral, are fiat and of little depth, excepting the primary convolution, the curvature of which produces the frontal eminence. In fol- lowing the undulations from the front backwards, we remark less lateral deviations in the convolutions, which render the Aryan brain a real labyrinth. In the middle lobe the convolutions seem considerably raised, but they are coarse. The posterior lobe has always appeared to me flattened on the top, as the anterior at the base. Viewed in profile, it is chiefly the direction of the fissure of Sylvius and its interior which has occupied the attention of anatomists. (Huschke cites with reserve the observations of Van der Kolk, who places in parallel some peculiarities of this region of the Negro brain with the disposition existing in apes. This part of cerebral anatomy has as yet been little cultivated, and before arriving at conclusions we should wait until the modifications which the human brain undergoes in all the periods of its develop- ment are better known than they are at present ; hence I confine myself simply to draw attention to Van der Kolk's remarks. In order to establish race characters upon such data, we should not forget what Rousseau says of the brain of Cuvier : " Multiplied convolutions were in the centre, sur- HUNT ON THE NEGBO's PLACE IN NATURE. 17 approaches the ape far more than the European,* while the Negress approaches the ape still nearer. With regard to the chemical constituents of the brain of the mounted by a raammilated exuberance, which formed an integral part of these convolutions." Are we on that account disposed to assume that this great man belonged to another race ?) With regard to the former, I have never been able to observe any appreciable difference between the brain of the Negro and that of the Egyptian, which I have placed side by side in order better to study the relation of the parts externally. The superior part of the brain above the corpus callosum is relatively little elevated. The cerebellum has a less angular form than in the European ; the vermis and the pineal gland are very large. Finally, the consistence of the cerebral mass is unquestion- ably greater in the Negro than in the white man. " The inspection of the Negro brain shows that the convolutions of the centre are clearly marked as in the Aryan foetus of seven months (Keichert), and that the secondary details are less distinct. By its rounded apex, its less developed posterior lobe, it resembles the brain of our children ; by the prominence of the parietal lobe it resembles that of our females, only that the latter is broader in the European female. The form of the cerebellum, the volume of the vermis and the pineal gland also place the Negro by the side of the Aryan child. " Having indicated the general characters relating to the external form of the great nervous centre, I must say a word with respect to its weight and the relative proportions between cerebrum and cerebellum. The number of observations on this point is very restricted, nevertheless we obtain some important points. First, the extremes present a scarcely credible difference, were it not confirmed by the great diversity in the measurement of the hori- zontal circumference of the cranium. Mascagni gives 738 grammes as the weight of one brain and 1587 grammes as the weight of another. The results obtained by Soemmering and Cooper seem to approach the average weight : 1354,5 and 1458 grammes. The mean for the weight of the cerebellum com- pared to that of the cerebrum would be : : 13,83 : 85,93. Measurement shows that the cerebellum of the Negro, in accord with the general form, excels by 3,13 in length that of the European, which is, however, broader. Weight and measurement establish that the two sexes present less differences in both respects in the Negro race than in the Aryan race." — Pruner Bey. * " The situation of the foramen magnum of the occiiutal bone is still a matter of dispute. Dr. Prichard thought it to be ' the same in the Negro as in the European ;' and so it may be, if no allowance be made for the face. The situation of the foramen magnum of the occipital bone is not the same in the Negro as in the European. Dr. Prichard says it is exactly behind the transverse fines, bisecting the antero-posterior diameter of the base of the cranium. Supposing this measurement to be correct, which it is not, it has nothing to do with the pose or position of the head upon the vertebral column, which, all must know, depends on the position of the condyles of the occipital bone. A line bisecting the antero-posterior diameter of the skull, and divid- ing into two equal parts, passes in the European head through the centre of the condyles of the occipital bone ; and the same measurement applies nearly to the antero-posterior diameter of the entire head. Not so in the coloured races. In speaking of the base of the cranium, I am not quite sure to which Prichard and his followers allude ; for very generally in anatomical works the base of the skull, including the upper jaw, is confounded with the true base of the skull." Robert Knox. Anthropological Preview, vol. i., p. 266. M. Broca has well pointed out the contradictions of Prichard as to the posi- tion of the foramen magnum, and clearly establishes the fact that it is placed further back in the Negro than in the European. Bull, de la Soc. d' Anthro- pologic, vol. iii., p. 524. 18 HUNT ON THE NEGRO'S PLACE IN NATURE. Negro, little that is positive is yet known. It has been found, however, that the grey substance of the brain of a Negro is of a darker colour than that of the European, that the whole brain has a smoky tint, and that the pia mater contains brown spots, which are never found in the brain of a European. M. Broca has recently had an opportunity of confirming the truth of this statement.* With regard to the convolutions, there is unani- mous testimony that the convolutions of the brain of the Negro are less numerous and more massive than in the European. Waitz thinks that the only resemblance ef the Negro's brain to that of the ape is limited to this point. f Some observers have thought they have detected a great resemblance between * The following observations by M. Paul Broca on the brain of the Negro is extracted from Bulletins de la Soc. d" 'Anthropologic, 1860. Before reading a manuscript addressed to the Society by Professor Gubler, of the Faculty of Medicine, M. Broca stated the circumstances which induced Pro- fessor Gubler to present it. A negro died in the Hospital de la Pitie. The body was brought to the amphitheatre of Claruart, when M. Broca asked of the prosector of the hospital to examine the brain of that body. Owing to the great heat of the month of August, the body was already in an incipient state of decomposition, and the brain was too soft to study the convolutions. M. Broca had, therefore, to confine himself to examining the colour of the substance. In order to render the examination more easy, M. Broca opened at the same time the cranium of a white subject, which was brought in the same day. The pia mater of the Negro presented in certain spots a brown tint; nothing of the kind existed in the white subject. The white substance of the Negro brain had a smoky tint, but it was especially in the grey sub- stance that the brown tint was marked. The two brains were placed in two separate vases containing the same quantity of alcohol. After three days they were sufficiently firm to be examined. The difference of coloration was then as decided as on the first day. In order approximately to de- termine the relative weight of the two brains, they were, after the re- moval of the membranes, dried upon some linen during a few minutes, and placed in the scale. The brain of the white subject weighed 1003 gram- mes, that of the black weighed only 925.5 grammes, being a difference of 8.3 per 100. This individual fact would be insignificant if it did not accord with the known data. Thus it is well known that the measure- ments of the capacity of the cranium made by Meigs, according to Mor- ton's method, gave an average of 93^ cubic inches for European and Anglo- American crania, and only 82£ for Negro crania, being a difference of 11£ cubic inches ; that is to say, that the cranial capacity of the Negro being represented by 100, that of the European is represented by 112. M. Broca had preserved in alcohol the least altered portion of the Negro brain, and presented it to the Anthropological Society ; but fearing that the long contact with the alcohol might modify its coloration (which, however, it did not), he showed it when fresh to the Biological Society. Already, some ten years ago, M. Bayer made to the same Society an analogous present ; and it is known that since Meckel in 1753 published a paper on this subject in the Memoirs of the Prussian Academy of Science, many authors have stated that the brain of the Negro is notably of a darker colour than that of the white man." f See Introduction to Anthropology, by Dr. Theodor Waitz. Edited from the first volume of Anthropologie der Naturvolker, by J. Frederick Collingwood, Esq., F.G.S., F.B.L.S., F.A.S.L., Hon. Sec. of the Anthropological Society of London, Foreign Associate of the Anthropological Society of Paris, p. 93. HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 19 the development of the temporal lobe in the Negro and ape ; but much further observation is required on this important subject. The eyes are more separated than in the European, but not so much so as in the Mongol. The aperture of the eye is narrow, horizontal, and both eyes are wide apart. All the teeth, especially the last molars, are generally large, long, hard, and very white, and usually show little signs of being worn. In some Negro-skulls there has been found an extra molar in the upper jaw. There is also sometimes a space between the incisors and canine* teeth of the upper jaw. The inferior molars sometimes present in the Negro race five tubercles, and this anomaly is sporadically found in other races. f It has been noticed in the European and the Esquimaux, but is said by my friend Mr. Carter Blake to be more frequent in the Negro * " The conical forni [of the canine] I find best expressed in the Melanian races, especially the Australian. ... It is also very well marked in the denti- tion of the Mozambique Negro, figured by F. Cuvier. — Dents des Mammiferes, pi. 1 ;" Owen. Odontography, 4to., London, 1840-45, p. 452. t " An examination of the teeth in a considerable number of African Negro crania has enabled us to draw the following conclusions : — In the African Negro the teeth are usually of large, but not excessive, size : they are regular, commonly sound, although caries is occasionally observed, and they seldom present that extreme amount of wearing down of the cutting and grinding surfaces which may be found so commonly in the Australian and Polynesian. The incisors are large, broad, and thick, but not of greater absolute dimen- sions than in numerous individuals amongst the white varieties. The teeth do not depart from the human type in their relative proportions ; for where- ever the incisors and canines are of considerable size, the true molars are likewise large, and maintain that superiority which is a distinguishing feature of the teeth of Man. The lateral incisors are well formed, and in the perfect entirety of their outer angles they adhere more invariably to the human type than do the same teeth in some more civilised races. The canines are not proportionally longer or more pointed than in the white man. The premolars agree in configuration and relative size with the typical standard. The true molars are usually of large size, generally larger than in the European ; the dentes sapientise, although smaller than the other molars, are in the majority of instances of greater relative and actual dimensions, and the fangs of the last-named teeth are usually distinct in both jaws. But in the character of their grinding surfaces and then general contour, the molars of the African Negro present no departure from the typical configuration, and, as in other races, there are many instances in which a general description will not entirely apply We would observe that, according to our limited experience, the general characteristics of the African Negro dentition are best exemplified (albeit liable to exception) in the Negroes of the Western Coast. The teeth in the crania we have seen from Eastern Central Africa, and from the Mozam- bique, appeared to us to present less markedly the minor differences above noted. The prognathic development of the jaws also, and the consequent obliquity of implantation of the incisor teeth, though common in a varying degree to all African nations, not excluding the Egyptians, attains its greatest development in crania from the Western Coast."— F. C. Webb. Teeth in Man and Anthropoid Apes, p. 41. c2 20 HUNT ON THE NEGRO'S PLACE IN NATURE. and Australian than in any other race. Sometimes Negroes have thirty-four instead of thirty-two teeth. The skin between the fingers, according to Van der Hoeven,* reaches higher up than in the European. The skin is also much thicker, especi- ally on the skull, the palm of the hand, and the sole of the foot. The rete mucosum, which is the chief seat of coloration, presents nothing particular as regards structure. f The hair of * Bijdragen tot de Natuurlijke Geschiedenis van der Negerstam, Leyden, 1842. f M. Primer thus speaks of the skin : — " Having now indicated the more prominent characters of the skeleton, I pass to the examination of the Negro with his integuments. " The skin, supple and cool to the touch, presents a velvety aspect (besides the shades of colour already mentioned). Upon the abdomen such pro- minences form zigzags and broken fine lines ; on the forearm they are seen in the form of small lozenges, and even in the extremities the skin is not altogether smooth. This aspect is partly the consequence of the great deve- lopment of the glandular apparatus, indicating a great turgescence of the tissues. Thus the skin of the penis does not merely present simple folds, but mammilated eminences. The dermis is thicker than In the other races, specially on the cranium, the palm, and the sole. The epidermis of an ash- grey colour is very resisting. The rete mucosum, which is the chief seat of the coloration, presents nothing particular as regards its structure. Its contents, viz., the pigment, is deposited in a shapeless mass, or in granules, chiefly around and in the interior of the nuclei of polyhedric cells, which are dis- posed in numerous irregular layers. The pigment presents shades of colour according to the position of the cells. The deeper and more coloured cells are of a blackish brown, whilst those approaching more the dermis of a more or less dilute yellow resemble the serosity of the blood (Koelliker). The coloured web may be considered as the complement of the epidermis, to which it adheres more closely than to the dermis, so that it is detached in blistering, though some patches usually remain on the dermis. The colour of the cicatrices in Negroes differs according to the colour of the individual, and the time elapsed since the cicatrisation. I have observed nothing noteworthy in this respect. It is known that the lines in tattooing present a deeper colour than the skin from the materials rubbed in. " The Negro loses a portion of the pigment on being transported to the north. It is always upon the prominent parts, such as the nose, the ears, &c, that a slight diminution is observed in dark subjects. I have, however, never observed this change in individuals with a velvety black skin which has sometimes a blueish shade. But in chronic diseases the diminution of the pigment is very perceptible ; thus the Negro grows, in a certain manner, pale like the European. It is a general rule that the deeper coloured a Negro is, compared to other individuals of his tribe, the better is his health. With regard to the relation between the degree of coloration and the intellect, the accounts of travellers do not agree. Thus, Dr. Barth asserts that in the centre of the Sudan, the most glossy jet black skin belongs to the most intelligent tribes. The example of the Yaloffs seems to confirm this as regards the West. Mr. Speke, on the contrary, states with regard to the Eastern populations between Mozambique and Lake Nyassa, that the tribes of a lighter colour, though Negroes in all other respects, by far excel in activity, bravery, and intelligence their jet black brothers. Very probably both versions are correct ; for we see in India, as well as Arabia, the two extremes of colour combined with the same intellectual capacities in peoples evidently congeners. " The intensity of the colour does not depend on the geographical latitude in the tropical zone of Africa. The extremes of the chromatic scale are HUNT ON THE NEGRO'S PLACE IN NATURE. 21 the Negro is essentially* different from that of the European, and consists of coarse, crisp, resembling a frizzly sort of wool, in juxtaposition in the principal spots, on the Senegal as well as on the Gaboon, north of the Niger and south of Lake Tsad, towards the Bay of Biaffra as in Mozambique, where M. Froberville counted thirty-one different shades of colour. Continued displacements have so much intermixed the tribes, and amalgamated entire na+ions, that it would be vain to determine, even by approximation, the primitive country of the true Negroes, and to derive therefrom any theory regarding the influence of geographical latitude on coloration. It is equally impossible to establish the degrees of inter- mixture which the representatives of the chromatic map have undergone. But, taking the deep brown or black Negro as the starting-point, can we attribute his colour to the soil, the air, the position of the sun, the great fluctuations between the diurnal and nocturnal temperature, an aliment rich in carbon such as the butter-tree, fermented liquors, &c, on one side, and the physiological reaction of the organism on the other? Must we, as regards the latter point, take in account the important part which the skin and the liver take in the respiratory functions according as we proceed from north to south? Must we admit that, in this respect, extremes meet, so that in turning to the high north, we find the coloration increase as we approach the pole ? Science is as yet not in possession of the necessary facts to solve this question ; experimental physiology must encounter it. As regards the etiology of the colour of the Negro, we must recur to the laws ofheredity." The same author makes the following remarks respecting the distribution of the pigment on the mucous membranes, the subcutaneous tissue, and the viscera : — " The pigment is in the form of black patches, found not merely upon the tongue, the velum, the conjunctivae, and the external angles of the eye, but also upon the mucous membrane of the intestinal canal, etc. " The cellular tissue is very abundant, especially on the erectile organs. The mammse, penis, lips, ears, and nostrils. The colour of the conjunctiva, always more or less injected, is more or less yellowish; the fat is always of a wax colour. An analogous coloration is observed in all the cellular and fibrous membranes and even in the periostetim. The development of the muscles, excepting the masseters, the external muscles of the ear, the larynx, and sometimes of the temporals, are not in proportion to the weight of the bones ; their colour is never of the bright red of the European, but rather of a yellowish tint, sometimes approaching the brown. M. Eschricht has found the muscles of the larynx very strong, the crico-thyroidei are especially large ; he has moreover found that a portion of the fibres of these last muscles ascend to the internal surface of the thyroid cartilage. Should that be a trace of the internal crico-thyroid muscles of the hylobate apes ? The visible mucous membranes of the mouth, the nostrils, etc., are of a cherry colour, excepting the lips which are bluish. " As upon the skin, so is the glandular system much developed in the internal integument ; the intestinal canal always presents a broken aspect, especially in the stomach and the colon. The intestinal mucxis is very thick, viscid, and fatty in appearance. All the abdominal glands are of large size, especially the liver and the supra renal capsules ; a venous hyperreniia seems the ordi- nary condition of these organs. The position of the bladder is higher than in the European. I find the seminal vesicles very large, always gorged with a turbid liquid of a slightly greyish colour, even in cases where the autopsy took place shortly after death. The penis is always of unusually large size, and I found in all bodies a small conical gland on each side at the base of the frcenum. " The vascular apparatus is very strong ; but the nervous system visibly * Dr. Pruner-Bey has just contributed a most valuable paper to the An- thropological Society of Paris, De la chevelure comme caracteristique des races humaines, d'apres des recherches microscopiques . A translation of this article will be found in the fourth number of the Anthropological Review. 22 HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. growing in tufts like the wool of sheep. It is rarely more than three inches long, and generally not nearly so much.* The larynx in the Negro is not much developed, and the voice resembles sometimes the alto of an eunuch. In the male the voice is low and hoarse, and in the female it is acute and shrieking ; at least, this is the opinion that has generally been given by Hamilton Smith and others : but there appear to be exceptions, for Dr. R. Clarkef says that " a pleasing manner, soft and win- ning ways, with a low and musical laugh, may in strict truth be declared to be the heritage of most of the Negro women." There is a peculiarity in the Negro's voice by which he can predominates over the arterial. The small arteries present everywhere numer- ous flexuosities. " The heart is powerfully organised and the right cavities are always very spacious. I have never observed here the least anomaly. The blood of the Negro (apart from anaemia and the dropsy) is always very thick, viscid, and pitchy; it rarely is projected in a jet in bleeding; it strongly adheres to the vessel, and always presents a serosity of a more or less dark yellow colour. The lungs relatively much less voluminous than the viscera of the abdomen, are usually melanose and pushed in by the stomach, the spleen, and the liver ; it might be said that the latter organ usurps their place/' * " The hair of the adult Negro is very fine, hard and elastic ; generally black, exceptionally of a fiery red, resembling wool, in describing several circles from 6 to 8 millimeters. Its length in the male is usually from 9-12 centimeters. In the Negress of East Africa it rarely descends below the shoidders. These women wear the hair in small tresses, carefully greased. In the male the hah' frequently has the appearance of a regular wig. Its insertion seems to follow another law in the Negro than in the white man. In the latter it presents irregular lines which converge and diverge in cross- ing, whilst in the former it is always circular. From this disposition fre- quently result separate tufts as in the Hottentot, and this peculiarity is very common among the Negresses of which I have spoken. " The hair of the Negro is not cylindrical. Transversal sections show that its circumference is always an ellipsis, the large diameter exceeds the small diameter by l-3rd to 3-5th. What is, moreover, remarkable, is that the large diameter, examined in different sections, does not remain parallel to itself; it turns as it were around the axis of the hair, so that the summits of these small ellipses, instead of being disposed in a straight line, describe around the hair two spiral curves (Koelliker). It is to this disposition that the crisp state of the hair of the Negro is due. With regard to the elementary micro- scopic structure, the hah' of the Negro differs from that of other races only by its medullary portion. The central medullary and aeriferous canal which is clearly seen in hair with elliptical circumference, and of which some traces are found in the cylindric hah' of Turanians, is absent in the Negro, even in those of his race which have red hair. " In the Aryan race, the hair of the same individual presents different shades in different parts of the body, but it is certain that the hair of the Negro is finer, elliptical and crisp, and that I have never found in it any trace of a medullary canal. The Negro race has, moreover, no down upon the body ; and but few hairs on the pubes and armpits. The beard comes late in the male ; it is silky or slightly crisp on the upper Up, more or less frizzled on the cheeks and the chin. The eyelashes curved. ; the eyebrows but little furnished are generally but little arched. The contrary is, according to Dr. Earth, ob- served in the Mousgous." — Pruner-Bey. f Transactions of the Ethnological Society, vol. ii of New Series. HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 23 always be distinguished. This peculiarity is so great that we can frequently discover traces of Negro blood when the eye is unable to detect it. No amount of education or time is likely ever to enable the Negro to speak the English language with- out this twang- : even his great faculty of imitation will not enable him to do so. Having thus briefly recapitulated the anatomical peculiarities of the Negro, we now come to the physiological* difference be- tween the Negro and European. * Mr. Pruner Bey gives the following : — Physiological Fragments. — " The penetrating odour which the Negro exhales, has something aimnoniacal and rancid ; it is lite the odour of the he-goat. It does not depend on the aqueous perspiration, for it is not increased by it. It is probably a volatile oil dis- engaged by the sebaceous follicles. This odour much diminishes by clean- liness, without, however, entirely disappearing. We are not aware whether this race-character changes by a uniform diet, as is the case with the fishers and opossum hunters in Australia. " The observations on the temperature of the internal cavities of the Negro race are not numerous enough to draw conclusions. It is, nevertheless, use- ful to note the results of the researches of M. d' Abbadie. In Upper Ethiopia this celebrated traveller found at all "seasons, in the buccal cavity of the Negro, a higher temperature than in individuals belonging to other races . The young Negresses always preserve in Egypt this excess of temperature ; not so the young Negroes : these have the mouth warmer than young men of other races in hot weather, but colder, on the contrary, in cold weather. " The pulse of the Negro in Egypt nearly corresponds to that of the other inhabitants, being, from 60-70 pulsations per minute. The contrary is observed in male children, from 10-13 years, and in young females from 14-20 : for the former 74-96 ; for the latter 84-104 pulsations per minute. " The senses of the Negro are not developed as in other races which are nearer to the state of nature, or live in a different climate. Vision does not in the Negro surpass that of the European ; the flattening of the cornea renders the Negro rather presbyopic than myopic. From his inclination and talent for music, hearing seems his most developed sense ; at any rate he ex- cels, in this respect, the Egyptian. To judge from the extent of the nasal cavities, smell ought to be very acute, such, however, does not appear to be the case. This applies also to the sense of taste ; the Negro is omnivorous. Touch, this general corrector of the white races, is little developed in the Negro, which accords with the flattening of the tactile cushions. But the most striking phenomenon with regard to general sensibility, is the apparent apathy of the Negro as to pain. In the most serious affections of internal organs, the Negro, arrived at a certain point, cowers on his bed (at least in the hospitals) without responding by any sign to the care of his physician. How- ever, in a state of civilised slavery, where he has acquired some knowledge, he becomes more communicative, without, however, betraying any manifesta- tion of pain. Bad treatment causes the Negro, the Negress, and the child to abundantly shed tears, but physical pain never provokes them. The Negro frequently resists surgical operations, but when he once submits, he fixes his eyes upon the instrument and the hand of the operator without any mark of restlessness or inrpatience. The lips, however, change colour and the sweat runs from him during the operation. A single example will support our view. A negress underwent the amputation of the right half of the lower jaw with the most astonishing apathy ; but no sooner was the diseased part removed, than she commenced singing with a loud and sonorous voice, in spite of our remonstrances, and the wound could only be dressed after she had finished her hymn of grace. 24 HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATUEE. The assumption of the unity of the species of man has been based chiefly on the asserted fact that the offspring of all the " The phases of development present in the Negro race some peculiarities which appear to me worth notice. We know next to nothing of- the embryo- nic state. The Negro infant is born without prognathism, with an ensemble of traits which is more or less characteristic as regards the soft parts, but which is scarcely marked in the cranium. In this respect the Negro, the Hottentot, the Australian, the Neo-Caledonian, do not indicate in the osseous system the difference which will arise later. The new born Negro child does not present the colour of the parents ; it is of a red colour mixed with bistre and less vivid than that of new-born European children. This premature colour is, however, more or less deep, according to the regions of the body. From reddish it passes to slate-grey, until sooner or later, according to the climate and soil, it corresponds to the colour of the parents. In the Sudan the metamorphosis, i.e., the development of the pigment, is generally completed at the end of the first year ; in Egypt only at the end of three years. The hah- of the Negro baby at first is rather chestnut than black ; it is straight and slightly curved at the point. I was unable exactly to determine the extent of the fontanelles, but to judge from the cranium, the difference in this respect from the Aryan child is not appreciable. " The first dentition commences nearly at the same epoch as with us. I have however, observed in Egypt cases of precocious as well as retarded dentition. Suckling continues during two years at least. After the first dentition, we already observe upon the cranium certain distinctive characters, viz. : — The median line of the forehead raised, the chin retracted, the superior jaw slightly inclined, the nose widened, the occiput prominent. Still the young Negro presents, until the time of puberty, a pleasing exterior. Puberty supervenes in girls between the ages of 10-12, and in boys between 13-15 years. It is then that the great revolution in the forms and proportions of the skeleton rapidly proceeds. This process and its results follow an inverse course as regards the cerebral and facial cranium. The jaws are enlarged with- out any compensation for the brain : it is not meant that there is an arrest of development — no, the difference of race manifests itself merely by a dif- ferent order of increase in the growth of the respective parts. Whilst in the Aryan man the moderate increase of the jaws and the bones of the face is abundantly compensated and even surpassed by a development or rather en- largement of the brain, specially of the anterior lobe : the contrary takes place in the Negro. Great compression, chiefly lateral, produced from with- out inwardly by the nmscles destined for animal life ; small reaction in the interior on part of the brain, and we have the mould of his cranium and his brain formed as we have described it. Everything is in harmony with the organism. No doubt this mode of viewing the conformation of the Negro cranium is open for discussion. " The course taken by the obliteration of the cranial sutures, furnishes a significative commentary to these phenomena. The medio-frontal suture as well as the lateral part of the coronal suture is in the Negro invariably closed already in early youth. In the adult Negro the union proceeds then to the middle part of the coronal suture and the sagittal suture — or as I have ob- served on crania in East Africa— on all sutures at once. The lambdoid suture is that which remains open longest, especially on the summit. At the base of the cranium, on the other hand, the basilo-sphenoid suture is frequently found open. As regards the incisive suture, it not only persists in the infant Negro, but is very distinct in many Negro crania of an advanced age. The obliteration of the sutures seems in the Negro race to be more rapidly effected in the female than in the male. " Prognathism has been, and may be considered, at least partly, as the result of the action of the inferior jaw on the concentric arch of the superior jaw. At any rate, the mode of articulation of this bone with the temporal, seems HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 25 mixtures of the so called races of man are prolific. Now this is assuming what yet has to be established. At present it is only proved that the descendants of some of the different races of man are temporarily prolific ; but there is the best evidence to believe that the offspring of the Negro and European are not indefinitely prolific. This question is one which must be dealt with separately and proved by facts. At present we find that all prima facie evidence is against the assumption that permanent hybrid races can be produced, especially if the races are not very closely allied. This subject, however, merits a special discussion, and belongs to that large and important question — human hybridity. We, therefore, cannot agree with much, to contribute to it ; for I have met with this conformation preferentially in the races in which the glenoid is large but of little depth, and the condyles of the maxillary more or less flattened, or at least elliptic ; it coincides with a more or less pronounced harmony of the row of teeth. These conditions facilitate the movement of the jaw from behind forwards, whilst in the cranium with deep and contracted glenoid cavities, and with condyles more or less rounded or pointed, the movement of the jaw is preferentially vertical. I am, however, well aware of the insufficiency of this etiology, and I ask myself whether prognathism is not simply the expression of a movement towards animality. It has been thought that prolonged lactation may in the Negro favour prognathism ; but I must observe that this custom prevails among many Oriental nations which are orthognathous. Moreover, it is known that the conformation is not exclusively peculiar to the African Negro. The majority of human races, whether dolicho- or brachycephalous, participate in it, as well as some civilised peoples : for instance the Peruvians, the Chinese, and Javano- Malays, at least the plurality of individuals comprising those nations. We find also exceptional cases more frequently in the ancient and modern Egypt- ians, less among the Jews, and less still in Western Europe. In all these cases, this conformation, however, does not exceed the first degree of the three distinct degrees we have established. " It must also be observed that the relative depression of the middle part of the face joined to the prominence of the jaws, is the essential condition of prognathism, and of the results derived from the measurement of the facial angle. We thus comprehend that the two straight lines drawn from the meatus auditorius to the forehead, and the alveolar border of the palatine suture, rarely present in favour of the latter a difference of two millimeters. This shows us that the depression of the nose in the Negro is as essential to produce prognathism, as the increase of the jaws from behind forwards. Par- turition, and lactation ordinarily give but little trouble to the Negress. Her fecundity seems to be great, for she produces up to ten children ; but the manners and even the institutions much reduce the number of offspring. Decline commences in the Negress between thirty -five and forty. Whilst the ugliness which accompanies age in the female is excessive, we find that in the male the hair blanches early, and at an advanced age his external aspect loses its harmony. Even in the races of the Sudan, with clear complexions and expressive features, as for instance in the Poulahs, which some hesitate to place among the Negroes, Dr. Barth remarks on the ugliness they exhibit in old age. He observes that their face has something of tue ape at that period, and he makes similar observations as regards the old ladies of the Maghis tribe, whose harmonious features when young he so much admired." 26 HUNT ON THE NEGKO^S PLACE IN NATURE. the asserted statement, especially when we find that the two scientific men who have in recent times paid the most atten- tion to this subject — I allude to Messrs. Broca and Nott — have come to the conclusion that the offspring of the Negro and European are not indefinitely prolific. With the permis- sion of the Society, I will enter into that question at some future day. M. Flourens asserted that the Negro children were born white ; recent observation has, however, shown that this is not the case. Benet, ex-physician of Runjeet Singh, and Dumoutier, affirm that the children are born chestnut colour. M. Pruner Bey confirms this fact from personal observation. In the Negro race there is a great uniformity of tempera- ment. In every people of Europe all temperaments exist ; in the Negro race, we can only discover analogies for the choleric and phlegmatic temperaments. The senses of the Negro are said to be very acute, especially smell and taste; but Pruner Bey says that there has been much exaggeration as to the perfection of the senses of the Negro, and that his eye-sight in particular is very much inferior to the European. The most detestable odours delight him,* and he eats every- thing. While the anatomical and physiological questions must be decided by actual facts, there still remains to investigate the psychological peculiarity of the Negro. It is here, perhaps, that the greatest amount of misconception exists in the minds of the public generally, and not unfrequently in the minds of some men of science. Wedded to the theory of a single pair for the origin of man, they attempt to show that there is in mankind no variety, nothing but uniformity. To show I do not exaggerate on this point, I will quote the words of an esteemed friend, which he read last year at Cam- bridge. He says : — " For as God made of one blood all the nations of the earth, and endowed them all with the same animal, intellectual, moral, and religious nature : so has he * Mr. Louis Fraser informs me that this is not always the case, and that sometimes a Negro will leave a vessel on account of a disagreeable odour, saying, " Cap'n, your ship stink too much, I can't stop." HUNT ON THE NEGRO'S PLACE IN NATURE. 27 bound theni all together — in accordance with the high behest that they should increase and multiply and replenish the earth — in one common bond of universal brotherhood." Mr. Dunn, however, it must be acknowledged, does not carry out the principles he here enunciates, for he fully admits the fact that, practically, Negro children cannot be educated with the whites. He also admits that some of the lower races are not able to conceive complex ideas, or have little power of think- ing, and none of generalisation, although they have excellent memories. The assertion that the negro only requires an opportunity for becoming civilised, is disproved by history. The Negro race has had communication with the Egyptian, Carthaginian, and Roman civilisations, but nowhere did it become civilised. Not only has the Negro race never civilised itself, but it has never accepted any other civilisation. No people have had so much communication with Christian Europeans as the people of Africa, where Christian bishops existed for centuries.* Except some knowledge of metallurgy they possess no art ; and their rude laws seem to have been borrowed and changed to suit their peculiar instincts. It is alleged that the Negro only requires early education to be equal to the European; but all experiments of this kind have proved that such is not the fact. With the negro, as with some other races of man, it has been found that the children are precocious : but that no advance in education can be made after they arrive at the age of maturity, they still continue, mentally, children. It is appa- rently of little consequence what amount of education they re- ceive, the same result nearly always follows, the reflective faculties hardly appear to be at all developed. The dark races generally do not accept the civilisation which surrounds them, as is shown in the South Sea, where they remain the uncivilised race by the side of the Malays. The opinion of Dr. Channing of America, is often quoted respecting the Negro. He says : — " I would expect from the Negro race when civilised, less energy, less courage, less intellectual origi- ' * It is said that when the Negro has been with other races, he has always been a slave. This is quite true : but why has he been a slave ? 28 HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. nality, tlian in ours ; but more amiableness, tranquillity, gentle- ness, and content." Now, if it were possible to civilise them, there is no doubt they would show less energy, courage, and intellectual originality (of which they would be utterly deficient) and, as to their amiableness, tranquillity, gentleness, and con- tent, it would be more like the tranquillity and content shown by some of our domestic animals than anything else to which we can compare it. It has been said that the present slave- holders of America cc no more think of insurrection amongst their full-blooded slaves than they do of rebellion amongst their cows and horses !•■"* It has also been affirmed (and I believe with truth) that not a single soldier has been required to keep order in the so called " Slave States" of America. The many assumed cases of civilised Negroes are generally not those of pure Negro blood. In the Southern States of North America, in the West Indies and other places, it has been fre- quently observed that the Negroes in place of trust have Euro- pean features, and some writers have supposed that these changes have been due to a gradual improvement in the Negro race, which is taking place under favourable circumstances. It is assumed that great improvement has taken place in the intellect of the Negro by education, which we much doubt. It is simply the European blood in their veins which renders them fit for places of power, and they often use this power far more cruelly than either of the pure blooded races. At the same time, there are doubtless many exceptions to this rule; depending perhaps on the amount of mixture of blood and inherited peculiarities. It has been affirmed that occa- sionally there are seen Negroes of pure blood who possess * " The Southern planter, with a consciousness of superiority that would be ashamed to resort to fiction or imposition of any kind, takes off his coat and works in the same field and at the same labour as his f slave.' The thought of the latter contesting his superiority never once enters his mind. As said by a sound statesman and gallant soldier of the South, * we no more think of a Negro insurrection, than we do of a rebellion of our cows and horses.' The planter rules as naturally as the Negro obeys instinctively ; the relation between them is natural, harmonious, and necessary, and their interests being indivisible, there can be no cause or motive, either for the abuse of power on the part of the master, or of rebellion on the part of the servant." — Negroes and Negro " Slavery." By J. H. Van Evrie, M.D. New York, 1881, p. 29. HUNT ON THE NEGRO'S PLACE IN NATURE. 29 European features : but I believe such not to be the fact, and Pruner Bey also says that " with regard to the re- gular Caucasian features, with which some travellers have endowed certain Negro peoples, I must state that among many thousand Negroes who have come under my own observation, there was not one who could lay claim to it." Instances have often been quoted of reputed European skulls with Negro characters. Such an instance there is in the College of Surgeons, another in Morton's museum, and one in Gall's collection ; but if we admit these to have be- longed to the pure race,* we shall only be admitting that in one character the European skull sometimes resembles that of the Negro ; but there will be plenty of other characters to show that they did not belong to the same race or species, and it ought simply to caution us not to base our ideas of race or species upon one character. We know that certain species of the mammalia frequently cannot be distinguished by the form of the skeleton, and we must therefore not be surprised to find that we are unable to prove a distinction of species in mankind if we take the cranium or even skeleton as a sole test. We now know it to be a patent fact that there are races existing which have no history, and that the Negro is one of these races. From the most remote antiquity the Negro race seems to have been what it now is.f We may be pretty sure * A large amount of mixture has continually been going on between the natives and the traders, especially on the rivers. The traders are not the finest specimens of their race, and much of the immorality of the settlements may be owing to this mixed blood. The following custom has existed for ages, and render most uncertain the parentage of some Africans who even come direct from the interior : — " The European stranger, however, travelling in their country, is expected to patronize their wives and daughters, and these unconscious followers of Lycurgus andCato feel hurt, as if dishonoured, by his refusing to gratify them. The custom is very prevalent along this coast. At Gaboon, perhaps it reaches the acme ; there a man will in one breath offer the choice between his wife, sister, and daughter. The women of course do as they are bid by the men, and they consider all familiarity with a white man a high honour." — Wanderings in West Africa, vol. 2, p. 24. f As a proof that the African has not changed during the last 2,000 years, the following description of an "Aunt Chloe" of the days of Virgil may be interesting : — Afra genus, tota patriam testante figura, Torta comam, labroque tumens, et fusca colorem ; Pectore lata, jacens mammis, compressior alvo, Cruribus exilis, spatiosa prodiga planta; Continuis rinds calcanea scissa rigebant. 30 HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. that the Negro race has been without a progressive history ; and that Negroes have been for thousands of years the uncivilised race they are at this moment. Egyptian monuments depict them as such, and holding exactly the same position relative to the European. Morton* truly observes : " Negroes were numerous in Egypt, but their social position in ancient times was the same that it now is, that of servants and slaves." Some writers have assumed that the Negro has degenerated from some higher form of civilisation, but we see no evidence to support such an assertion. We, however, fully admit that there are found traces of a higher civilisation, especially along the coasts visited, during all ages, by Europeans. The working of metals and imitation of European manufactures also exist in many parts of Africa. Indeed, there seems to be a great same- ness in this respect throughout all Africa. Consul Hutchinson has given an interesting account of the finding of some imple- ments used by the natives of Central Africa exactly resembling those used by the Anglo-Saxons. Consul Hutchinson thus describes them :f — cc You will be surprised, no doubt, to hear that I brought down with me from the tribes of Filatahs, in Central Africa, iron heads of spears with wooden shafts and iron spiked ferules, heads of javelins and arrows, double-edged swords, knives, beads for orna- ments, potteryware for culinary purposes, exactly similar in pattern to those that are described by Mr. Wright, in a paper on ' Fausset Antiquities/ which he read before the British As- sociation at Liverpool, in 1856, and which antiquities I need scarcely tell you were excavated at Canterbury, as well as proved to have been used in this country before the introduc- tion of Christianity to our shores. Even the cowrie (the shell As it is the fashion to quote Cowper on the Negro in anthropological dis- cussions, I append his translation of the above, which although feeble, yet conveys the spirit of the original. " From Afric she, the swain's sole serving maid, Whose face and form alike her birth betrayed ; With woolly locks, lips tumid, sable skin, Wide bosom, udders flaccid, belly thin, Legs slender, broad and most misshapen feet, Chapped into chinks, and parched with solar heat." * Crania JEgyptiaca. Philadelphia, 1844 (eighth conclusion), f Transactions of the Ethn. Soc, vol. i, new series, p. 328. HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 81 of tlie Oyprcea moneta), which is described in Mr. Wright's paper as having been found among other relics of our Anglo-Saxon forefathers, is in this very day the currency among the Filatahs. It may perhaps increase the interest of my statement, which can be demonstrated by the articles I brought home (being de- posited at the Eoyal Institution museum at Liverpool), when I add that they were obtained from tribes who had no record of ever having been visited by any white man previous to the time of our voyage at the end of 1854." There is good reason to believe that, as among all inferior races, there has been little or no migration from Africa since the earliest historical records. The European, for ever restless, has migrated to all parts of the world, and traces of him are to be found in every quarter of the globe. Everywhere we see the European as the conqueror and the dominant race, and no amount of education will ever alter the decrees of Nature's laws. We hear much of late in this country of the equality of the Negro and European, because we have little real knowledge of the Negro ; but in America the Negro is better known. As Dr. Van Evrie observes :* " In the United States, among a people almost universally educated, and where the fact of 1 equality ' is almost universally understood and acted on, per- sonally as well as politically, the advocacy of woman's c equal- ity,' in the sense that they (in England) argue it, or c equality ' of the Negro to the white man in any sense whatever, is in- excusable on the ground of ignorance ; and those thus warring against the laws of nature and progress of society, deserve to be treated as its enemies, or as absolute maniacs, and irre- sponsible for the evils they seek to inflict upon it." It has been assumed on very insufficient evidence that the Ne- groes in America improve in intelligence in every generation, and that they gradually approach the European type. M. Quatrefages recently directed our attention to this point, as did Sir Charles Lyell many years ago. It is affirmed that the head and body also approach the European without any mixture of the races. * Negroes and "Negro Slavery." New York, 1861, p. 10. 32 HUNT ON THE NEGEO's PLACE IN NATUEE. M. Quatrefages quotes the following* from M. Elisee Eeclus : "We do not intend here to touch upon the question of slavery, we would merely state a certain fact — the constant advance of Negroes in the social scale. Even in physical respects they tend gradually to approach their masters ; the Negroes of the United States have no longer the same type as the African Negroes ; their skin is rarely of velvet black, though nearly all their progenitors have been imported from the Coast of Guinea ; their cheekbones are less prominent, their lips not so thick, nor the nose so flattened, neither is the hair so crisp, the physiognomy so brutish, the facial angle so acute as those of their brethren in the old world. In the space of one hundred and fifty years they have, as far as external appearance goes, passed one-fourth of the gulph which separates them from the white race." I cannot assent to this, as I believe that no improvement takes place after the second generation. On this point Dr. Nott f -has very judiciously observed : " Sir C. Lyell, in common with tourists less eminent, but on this question not less misinformed, has somewhere stated that the Negroes in America are undergoing a manifest improve- ment in their physical type. He has no doubt that they will, in time, show a development in skull and intellect quite equal to the whites. This unscientific assertion is disproved by the cranial measurements of Dr. Morton. That Negroes imported into, or born in, the United States become more intelligent and better developed in their physique generally than their native compatriots of Africa, every one will admit; but such intelligence is easily explained by their ceaseless contact with the whites, from whom they derive much instruction ; and such physical improvement may also be readily accounted for by the increased comforts with which they are supplied. In Africa, owing to their natural improvidence, the Negroes are more frequently than not a half-starved, and therefore half-developed, race; but when they are regularly and adequately fed, they become healthier, better developed, and more humanised. Wild horses, cattle, asses, and other brutes are greatly im- * Unite de I'Espece Humaine. Paris, 1861. f Tidies of Mankind. Philadelphia, 1857, p. 260. HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 33 proved in like manner by domestication ; but neither climate nor food can transmute an ass into a horse, or a buffalo into an ox." The real facts seem to be, that the Negroes employed in domestic labour have more intelligence than those who are employed at field labour, who are nearly in the same mental condition as when they left Africa. We must bear in mind, however, that there are only some of the African tribes of Negroes who are docile and intelligent enough for domestic purposes : the Eboes are generally selected for this purpose. We see therefore in this improvement of the Negro simply the effect of education, but not of climate or other physical agents. We fully admit that the domestic Negroes are im- proved in intelligence in America, resulting from the imitation of the superior race by which they are surrounded; but much of the improvement in intellect is owing to the mixture of European and Negro blood. The Negro is not generally edu- cated because it is affirmed that he is no sooner taught to read than he will take every chance of reading his master's letters ; and if he be taught to write, he will soon learn to forge his master's signature. This applies with equal, and, perhaps, greater force to those free, semi-civilised Negroes who are held by some in such theoretical veneration. I have intentionally avoided dwelling on the great diversity of physical type found in Africa, as this is foreign to our subject. There can be no doubt, however, that there is, both in North and South Africa every shade of colour and races with very different features. There are also in Central Africa some races such as the Mandingos, Fulahs, and Wolofs, who are quite distinct from the typical Negro. In these races, some of the characters found in the typical Negro are found in only a very modified degree. How many races inhabit Africa, and their relation to one another, is not the subject of present inquiry. M. Pruner Bey has very judiciously made the follow- ing observations on this point : — " We must admit that the inferior orbital margins are fre- quently narrow and retreating ; that the noses become longer and more prominent ; that the lips turned up in some tribes D 34 HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. are only full in others ; that prognathism diminishes without however disappearing entirely; that the aperture of the eye becomes wide ; that the hair short and woolly in most, grows longer ; that the transverse diameter of the chest becomes en- larged ; that even the pelvis, though much more rarely, ac- quires more rounded outlines ; that the limbs acquire more harmonious proportions ; that the hips, thighs, and legs become more fleshy and the foot more arched ; but as regards the crowning of the work, i.e., the skull, especially the cere- brum, all the variations in the Negro race remain confined within limits which deserve our attention. In the Aryan race the skull presents three fundamental types, the elongated form (producing in some exceptional cases prognathism) which approaches the limit of the Negro type ; the short and round form, approaching the Turanian race ; and finally, the typically beautiful oval form, which seems to have resulted from a combination of the two former. Nothing like it is to be found in the Negro. The skull is and remains elongated, it is elliptical, cuneiform, but never round ; his facial bones may approach the pyramidal form by the increasing distance be- tween the cheekbones, and may in this respect resemble the Kaffirs and the Bechuanas, but this is all." This generalisa- tion appears to me to be in accordance with all the known facts respecting the craniological development of the chief African tribes, which thus form one great ethnic family, although com- posed of many distinct races. I need not enlarge on the well-known and admitted facts respecting the intense immorality which exists amongst the Mulattoes and others of mixed blood.* There are, at the same * The following extract is a striking confirmation of this remark : — " But the worst class of all is the mulatto — under which I include quadroon and octaroon. He is everywhere, like wealth, irritamenta malorum. The ' bar- sinister/ and the uneasy idea that he is despised, naturally fill him with ineffable bile and bitterness. Inferior in point of morale to Europeans, as far as regards physique to Africans, he seeks strength in making the families of his progenitors fall out. Many such men visiting England are received by virtue of their woolly hair and yellow skin into a class that would reject a fellow-countryman of similar, nay of far higher, position; and there are amongst them infamous characters, who are not found out till too late. London is fast learning to distinguish between the Asiatic Mir and the Munshi. The real African, however — so enduring are the sentimentalisms of Wilberforce and Buxton — is still to be understood." — Wanderings in West HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 35 time, perhaps, some exceptions to this general rule, which, how- ever,hasbeen observed in every country where thesepeople exist. Of all the questions connected with the Negro, the most difficult to settle is that of his intelligence. Amidst conflicting testimony, it is difficult to discover the truth. We may ad- Africa. 1863. Vol. i. p. 271. This is by no means a modern idea, for I find the following extract from a work entitled " A new voyage to Guinea/' by William Smith, Esq., appointed by the Eoyal African Company to survey their settlements, make discoveries, &c, in a second edition pub- lished in 1745, p. 213. Speaking of the Mulattoes of the Gold Coast at that time, this author observes : " Upon this coast are a Sort of People called Mullatoes, a race begotten by the Europeans upon Negroe Women. This Bastard Blood is a Parcel of the most profligate Villains, neither true to the Negroes, nor to one another ; yet they assiime the Name of Chris- tians, but are indeed as great Idolators as any on the Coast. Most of the Women are public Whores to the Europeans, and private ones to the Negroes. In short, whatever is bad among the Europeans or Negroes are united in them; so that they are the Sink of both. They are frightfully ugly, when they grow in Years, especially the women." There is, how- ever, an earlier description of these peoples from which the author seems to have partly borrowed his ideas. Nearly the same words are given in William Bosnian's work on Guinea, published at the end of the 17th century. Is not this picture true of Mulattoes as a class all over the world ? Bosman says (Loc. Cii. 141): — "Though I have been tedious in this, I hope you will pardon it ; for I must own my Itch of Scribbling is not yet over, and I cannot help giving you an account of a wonderful an extraordinary sort of People, I mean the Tapceyers or Mulattoes ; a race begotten by the Europeans upon the Negro or Mulatto -Women. This Bastard Strain is made up of a parcel of profligate Villains, neither true to the Negroes nor us, nor indeed dare they trust one another ; so that you very rarely see them agree together. They assume the Name of Christians, but are as great Idolators as the Negroes themselves. Most of the Women are public Whores to the Europeans and private ones to the Negroes, so that I can hardly give them a character so bad as they deserve. I can only tell you whatever is in its own Nature worst, in the Europeans and Negroes is united in them ; so that they are the sink of both. The Men, most of which are Soldiers in our service, are clothed as we are ; but the Women prink up themselves in a particular manner : Those of any Fashion wear a fine Shift, and over that a short Jacket of silk or stuff, without sleeves ; which reaches from under the arms to their hips, fastened only at the shoulders. Upon their heads they wear several capn, one upon the other ; the uppermost of which is of Silk, plated before and round at the top, to make it fit soft, upon all which they have a sort of Fillet, which comes twice or thrice around the Head. Thus dressed they make no small show. On the lower part of their body they are clothed as the .Negro -Women are; and those who are poor are only distinguishable by their dress : they going naked in the upper part of their body. " The whole Brood, when young, are far from handsome, and when old, are only fit to fright children to their beds. If a painter were obliged to paint Envy, I could wish him no better original to draw after than an old Mulatto- Woman. In process of time, their Bodies become speckled with white, brown, and yellow spots, like the Tigers, which they also resemble in their barbarous natures. But I shall here leave them, for fear it may be thought that I am prejudiced by hatred against 'em ; but so far from that, that there is not a single person who hath anything to do with them but he must own they are not worth speaking to." D 2 36 HUNT ON THE NEGRO'S PLACE IN NATUEE. init, however, that there are instances of the pure Negro showing great powers of memory, such as the acquirement of languages ; but we must also remember that memory is one of the lowest mental powers. Numerous instances have been collected by different partisan writers to show that the Negro is equal intellectually to the European ; but an examination of these cases nearly invariably leads to the conclusion that there has been much exaggeration in the statements made by writers as to the aptitudes of the Negro for education and improvement. The exhibition of cases of intelligent Negroes in the saloons of the fashionable world by so-called "philanthropists"* has frequently been nothing but mere imposture. In nearly every case in which the history of these cases has been investigated, it has been found that these so-called Negroes are the offspring of European and African parents. I propose on some future occasion to lay before you evidence to show, that nearly all the Negroes who are asserted to have arrived at any mental distinc- tion had European blood in their veins : and think I shall be able to show that of the fifteen celebrated Negroes whose his- tories were collected by Abbe Gregoire there is not one who is of pure Negro blood. Some writers who advocate the specific difference of the Negro from the European have very injudiciously admitted that occasionally the Negro is equal in intellect to the European, but this admission has materially * The following words of Thomas Carlyle deserve to be recorded in every discussion on the Negro : — " Sunk in deep froth oceans of ' Benevolence/ ' Fraternity,' ' Emancipation-principle/ ' Christian Philanthropy/ and other most amiable looking, but most baseless, and in the end baleful and all- bewildering jargon, sad product of a sceptical eighteenth century, and of poor human hearts left destitute of any earnest guidance, and disbelieving that there ever was any, Christian or heathen, and reduced to believe in rosepink sentimentalism alone, and to cultivate the same under its Christian, anti-Christian, broad-brimmed, Brutus-headed, and other forms — has not the human species gone strange roads during that period ? And poor Exeter Hall, cultivating the broad-brimmed form of Christian sentimentalism and long talking, and bleating and braying in that strain, has it not worked out results ? Our West India legislatings, with their spoutings, anti-spoutings, and interminable jangle and babble ; our twenty millions down on the nail for blacks of our own ; thirty gradual millions more, and many brave British lives to boot, in watching blacks of other people's ; and now, at last, our ruined sugar estates, differential sugar duties, ' immigration loan/ and beau- tiful blacks sitting there up to the ears in pumpkins, and doleful whites sitting here without potatoes to eat; never, till now, I think, did the sun look down on such a jumble of human nonsenses." HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 37 weakened their argument in favour of a specific difference. If this be so, let me ask those who hold such an opinion to give the name of one pure Negro who has ever distinguished him- self as a man of science, as an author, a statesman, a warrior, a poet, an artist. Surely, if there is equality in the mental development of human races, some one instance can be quoted. From all the evidence we have examined, we see no reason to believe that the pure Negro even advances further in intellect than an intelligent European boy of fourteen years of age. Many writers have mentioned the precocity of the Negro children. Sir C. Lyell has observed :* " Up to fourteen years of age black children advance as fast as the whites ;" and Eliot Warburton has remarkedf that the modern Egyptian ' ' when young, is remarkably precocious in intellect, and learns with facility. As he grows up, his intelligence seems to be dulled or diminished : he has no genius for discovery, and though apt in acquiring rudiments, he is incapable of generalising. He fills subordinate departments well, but appears incapable of taking or of keeping a lead." Sir C. Lyell expresses his sur- prise at the results of the mixture of some European blood with the Negro, and thinks " it a wonderful fact, psychologically considered, that we should be able to trace the phenomena of hybridity even into the world of intellect and reason." It would, indeed, be remarkable if all men were endowed with the same instincts ; but not so wonderful if we do not accept such an unfounded hypothesis. The pure Negro seems incapable of much mental cultivation; and Archbishop Sumner's much- talked-of " improveable reason," as a distinction between men and animals, only finds a limited application in the Negro race. The reason of animals is improved to some extent by domesti- cation and training, and this is all we can say of the Negro. Dr. Madden observes : " It will be seen by all the answers the missionary gentlemen in our different settlements have given to my queries respecting the mental capacity of Negro children, that they are considered universally, in that respect, equal to European children, and by some even quicker, in their percep- * Second Journey to the United States, vol. i, p. 105. f The Crescent and the Cross. 38 HUNT ON THE NEGRO'S PLACE IN NATURE. tions, and more lively in their powers of apprehension." To which Dr. R. Clarke adds :* " This is observable from the ages of five to twelve or thirteen years ; but from that period of life to the age of eighteen or twenty, it becomes less strongly marked, and there appears to be less activity in the mental faculties." Professor Owen gives it as his opinionf that we are unable " to appreciate or conceive of the distinction between the psy- chical phenomena of a Chimpanzee and of a Bosjesman, or of an Aztec with arrested brain growth ;" but we are able clearly to appreciate the psychological distinction between the Negro and the Chimpanzee : just as we see that there are decided mental and moral distinctions between the European and the Negro. We fully admit, however, that the psychical distinction is simply a question of degree and not of kind. The day is not far distant when we shall be able to analyse the mental character of the Negro far more minutely than we can do in the present infant state of psychological science. J In * Sierra Leone, p. 34. f Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London, 1857, p. 20. J Pruner-Bey thus speaks of the Psychology of the Negro : — " The mani- festations of the affective and intellectual facilities of the Negro may be placed in parallel with his physical type. Sensuality is the great lever of his propensities ; from his imitative talent result the qualities which demand our esteem. The first renders him an eminently sociable being; by the second he becomes an artist of a secondary rank. Solitude is insupportable to him ; song and dance are indispensable wants. Materialist in the main, he is in this respect below the more refined Chinese ; but, like the latter, he prefers suicide to great privations. He preferentially selects the most violent means to attain this object ; he suffocates himself by reversing his tongue towards the larynx ; he throws himself from precipices ; he drowns himself. He rarely takes the initiative in anything. In spiritual things he repro- duces, but is not productive. It was only after having acquired the know- ledge of the existence of letters among other peoples that an individual of the Vei tribe invented an alphabetic primer, the greatest effort which the Negro has ever made in the cultivation of science. The eminently imitative nature of the Negro even reveals itself in that part in which the creative faculty of every race reflects itself; viz., language. It appears to me evident that the Negro in the structure of his languages has endeavoured to produce a copy of all the systems known without attaining the perfection of any original. The same remark applies to the ideas and conceptions referring to regions of the invisible world, towards which the human mind at all times, and in all regions, soared to attempt the solution of the highest problems. The adoration of natural objects, of stones, trees, &c, of the sun, as well of the names of ancestors, demonology, the attribution of superior powers to objects made by the hand of man, divination by the inspection of entrails, human sacrifices, and anthropophagy, — for a mystical object all this found its place in the soul of the Negro, as amongst us in times past ; but he surpasses the Semitic, the Aryan, and even the Chinese, in having completely forgotten HUNT ON THE NEGEO's PLACE IN NATURE. 39 dwelling on the mental character of the Negro we must, there- fore, for the present, rely on the general observations of those the signification of the symbol. For him animals would speak the language of man if they were not too lazy. He has probably invented the fable, in approaching by the excess of his instincts, the brute to man. It is specially south of the Equator that the Negro is heavily enchained by a fatal supersti- tion. Living in continued fear of being bewitched, the simple suspicion of it induces him to immolate hecatombs of innocents. The Judgment of God of the ancient gallants of the North of Europe is not unknown to him, but he prefers poison for the ordeal of suspected persons. Moreover, the Negro takes the world as he finds it, and he neither imagines a system of cosmogony nor any spiritual theory on the attributes of a superior being. On the other hand, he readily accepts Islaraism, and he probably would never oppose to the introduction of the sublime doctrine of fraternal love that desperate resistance shown by the ancient Saxons and Scandinavians. " Another point in the psychology of the Negro remains to be examined, and it is not the least important one. I would speak of the facility with which he loses his equilibrium when passing from one extreme to the other, frequently without any appreciable motive, of that contradiction in which he presents himself in his social relations, and the excesses of which he is capable. Patient towards a master who illtreats him, he assassinates one who has cherished him. Defending his cabin with ferocious obstinacy, he would sell his children for a piece of stuff. A kneeling slave before a king of his blood, he would condemn him to death when he is tired of him. ' You please no longer men or women, old men or children, sheep or fowls/ say the Negroes of the Sudan to their Sultan, to signify to him that it is time he should execute himself. Caring little about the chastity of his daughters, and prostituting his slaves, the Negro assures himself during his absence of the fidelity of his wife by mechanical means, and he becomes an assassin on the mere suspicion of her adultery. Nevertheless, the Negress has more liberty than Islam women, and she is respected in war. Abusing the weaker sex, and deprecating her even by the difference of aliments which he gives her, he nevertheless accepts a woman as his sovereign, according prerogatives to the Queen-mother, and regulating the rights of succession as the peoples of Asia who live in a state of polyandry. A mutual exchange of the occu- pations of the two sexes is not rare, even among the Negroes of the Sudan. The women cultivate the soil, and the man spins cotton ; he guards the fields, she goes to war. The same contradiction is observed in other things which touch the interest of the Negro. Particularly anxious about the arrange- ments of the interior of his cabin, he remains naked outside in the heat of the day and the comparatively excessive cold of the night. Very domestic and attached to the soil, the Negro travels over the great continent from one end to the other, either for traffic or to fulfil some religious duties. Whole nations are . continually on the move, and gipsies would find their brothers among the Negro race. " The Negro is not cruel by nature ; he remains as far in this respect from the bloody refinement of the Chinese as from the atrocious proceedings of the Aryan Persians. Still the dynasties of Wadai blind their nearest male relations ; the despot of the Moluwas mutilates and skins those condemned to death. The civilised Bornoui cuts off the thighs of his war prisoners, and the Mousgous skin the backs of their horses to have a firmer seat. But they do not put their slaves to the plough like some tribes of Touaregs. The punishments inflicted by the Negro on his equals, savour, however, more or less of barbarism." " Let us not, however, forget that these excesses do not constitute the rule, and that ' the black man is to the white man what woman is to man in general, a loving being and a being of pleasure.' We cite with conviction the words of Golbery, ' the Negro is generally sober, industrious, an excel- 40 HUNT ON THE NEGRO'S PLACE IN NATURE. unbiassed travellers and others who have been much associated with the Negro race. In the first place we will see what is the evidence recently published by our English consuls, who have the best opportunities of judging of the character of the people amongst whom they are placed. Consul Hutchinson, who spent no less than eighteen years on the West coast of Africa, and who is as competent a judge as any man now living, says* that " his own observations on the African tribes tend to show that the African is not exactly the style of ' man and a brother' which mistaken enthusiasts for his civilisation depict him to be." He gives the result of a ten years' attendance at the Missionary school at Cape Palmas of one of his servants, a Kruman, and says that at the end he was asked what he knew of God ? He replied : " Grod be very good ; He made two things — one sleep and the other Sunday, when no person had to work."f Consul Hutchinson says that " the thirst for each other's blood, which seems a daily habit amongst so many of the Negro tribes in Western Africa, appears to me to be incompatible with ordinary notions of common humanity." He says that for scores of years European missionaries and English traders have mixed with them in social intercourse, lent and patient workman, not wanting skill ; he governs his family with sagacity and dignity.' We also subscribe the judgment of Mungo Park, that ' the Negro is compassionate by nature,' and we may add that the Ne- gress is even in a state of slavery capable of the greatest devotion. " Improvidence they have in common with all human races who live in a more or less primitive state, and pride of the stronger against the weaker is not foreign to the Negro. " The portrait which L. Magyar traces of the peoples east of Angola is not favourable. The Djambandis, though polite to strangers, are described as stispicious, false, malicious, and thievish ; the Djohoes are still worse, specially vicious to strangers. They contrast with the Moluwas, who are full of atten- tion to their guests. Most of the inhabitants of the*Lobal are ferocious brigands. The judgment of Mr. Kauffinann on the Negroes of the White Nile is generally not more favourable. " Jn social respects the Negro has at least attained the position of shepherd and agriculturist. Besides this some Negro-peoples have founded, inde- pendent of all foreign influence, a sort of civilisation and considerable states ; they possess the art of metallurgy and the talent for trade to a high degree, and they well know how to profit by the foibles of their masters ; their answers, for instance, are always shaped according to the desire of the questioner." * Transactions of the Ethnological Society, vol. i, New Series, p. 327. f " All missionaries praise the African for his strict observance of the Sabbath. He would have 365 sabbaths in the year if possible, and he would as scru- pulously observe them all." — Wanderings in West Africa, vol. i, p. 266. HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 41 yet they still cling " to their gris-gris, jujus, fetichism and cannibalism with as much pertinacity as they did many hun- dred years ago." He adds : " Here we have all the appliances of our arts, our science and our Christianity, doing no more good than did the wheat in the parable that was sown amongst the briars and the thorns. To attempt civilising such a race "before they are humanised appears to me to be beginning at the wrong end. I have passed many a hour in cogitating and endeavouring to fabricate some sort of education likely to root out the fell spirit that dictates human sacrifices and cannibal- ism ; but I fear years must elapse before any educational prin- ciple, in its simplest form, can produce an amendment on temperaments such as they possess." Consul Burton considers* that M. Du Chaillu's remarks con- cerning the commercial shrewdness and eagerness, the greedi- ness and rascality of the Negro, apply to him everywhere in his natural state ; that an abnormal development of adhesive- ness, in popular language a peculiar power of affection, is the brightest spot in the Negro character; as in children, it is somewhat tempered by caprice, especially under excitement, yet it has entitled him to the gratitude of many a traveller. Exaggeration, he considers, is the characteristic of the mind of both the Eastj- and West African. He says that " they justly hold labour as an evil inferior only to death." These are the opinions which have been published by the * Transactions of the Ethnological Society, vol. i, New Series, p. 317. f Captain Burton thus speaks of the Coast clans of Eastern Africa : — " Supersubtle and systematic liars, they deceive where duller men would tell the truth ; the lie direct is no insult, and the offensive word ' Muongo,' (liar) enters largely into every dialogue. They lie like Africans, objectlessly, needlessly, when sure of speedy detection: when fact would be more profit- able than falsehood ; they have not discovered with the civilised knave, that 'honesty is the best policy;' they lie till their fiction becomes subjectively fact. With them the lie is no mental exertion, no exercise of ingenuity, no concealment, nor mere perversion of the truth : it is aj)parently a local in- stinctive peculiarity in the complicated madness of poor human nature. The most solemn and religious oaths are with them empty words ; they breathe an atmosphere of falsehood, manoeuvre and contrivance, wasting about the mere nothings of life — upon a pound of grain or a yard of cloth — ingenuity of iniquity enough to win and keep a crown. And they are treacherous as false ; with them the salt has no signification, and gratitude is unknown even by name." — Lake Regions of Central Africa. By R. F. Burton. 1861. Vol. i. 42 HUNT ON THE NEGRO'S PLACE IN NATURE. last two consuls who have written on the subject, and we shall now examine the evidence of some other witnesses.* M. Du Chaillu describes the general characteristics of the tribes he visited who spoke the Mpongwe language as far superior to the Negroes of Congo. He saysf " the Negroes * Truthful William Bosnian published the following as his opinions re- specting the Negroes of Guinea in 1705 (loc. cit., p. 117). " The Negroes are all, without exception, crafty, villanous and fraudulent, and very seldom to be trusted, being sure to slip no opportunity of cheating an European, nor indeed one another. A man of integrity is as rare among them as a white falcon and their fidelity seldom extends farther than to their masters ; and it would be very surprising if, upon a scrutiny into their lives, we should find any of them whose perverse nature would not break out some- times, for they indeed seem to be born and bred villains. All sorts of base- ness having got such sure footing in them, that 'tis impossible to lye con- cealed; and herein they agree very well with what authors tell us of the Muscovites. These degenerate vices are accompanied with their sisters — Sloth and Idleness, to which they are so prone, that nothing but the utmost necessity can force them to labour. They are besides so incredibly careless and stupid, and are so little concerned at their misfortunes, that 'tis hardly to be observed, by any change in them, whether they have met with any good or ill success." Mr. J. W. Jackson makes the following observations on the Negro (Ethnology and Phrenology, 1863, p. 35) : — " The radical defect of the Negro is want of due nervous development. His brain is less in proportion to his body than that of any other grand division of humanity, and as a restdt, the involuntary and animal functions altogether preponderate. His flat foot, his long heel, his imperfect pelvis, his powerful stomach, his prognathous jaw, his enormous mouth, and his pug nose, are in perfect correspondence with his imperfectly developed brain, in which correspondently passion and affection rule principle and facrdty, the basilar and posterior develop- ments being predominant over the coronal and anterior. Except in a few unfavourable instances, however, he does not exist on the continent in his lowest form; for it is the Oceanic Negro who is the almost irre- claimable savage, while the African is the improvable barbarian type of his race. The former is useless even as a slave, while the latter is eminently valuable, because he has been broken to work and obedience, and has that hereditary aptitude for sustained toil, of which the utter savage is so gene- rally devoid. Hence, despite his present degradation, he obviously belongs to the redeemable families of humanity. He is the labotu'er of the tropics, and is not going to perish out, like a wild Indian, because his buffalo grounds have been enclosed by the white faces. He has his place on the earth which none can take from him, and what we have to attempt is not his extirpation, but improvement. Hence, a study of his character and capabilities is of the utmost importance. From temperament he is slow, but from organisation he is persistent, his lymphatic nature being sustained by a considerable amount of firmness and self-esteem. He is not skilful, his mechanical ingenuity being that of a child ; nor is he capable of delicate manipulation, for which his entire organisation is too coarse. His perceptive faculties are stronger than his reflective or imaginative, and he dwells in the real rather than the ideal. He never rises from a fact to a principle, or re-creates beauty from the faultless beau-ideal of artistic conception. He has but little reve- rence for the past, and no very brilliant anticipation of the future, being from the overwhelming strength of his sensuous nature swallowed up in the present." f Transactions of the Ethnological Society, vol. i, New Series, p. 306. HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 43 possess an imaginative mind, are astute speakers, sharp traders, great liars, possessing great powers of dissimulation, and are far from being in many respects the stupid people they are believed to be. In everything that does not require mental labour and forethought, they seemed to me to learn almost as fast as any amongst the more intellectual races to a certain point." He further affirms that they have little power of fore- thought or power of reflection, and that there is " a total lack of generalisation." He also says, that although these people " are often treacherous, they have noble qualities, given to hos- pitality, and the women show great kindness of heart, especially when one takes into account the way they are treated." Brehm* says that " there seems to be a complete absence of moral sentiment amongst the natives of East Sudan, who not merely excuse theft, murder, and treachery, but consider these actions as praiseworthy in man. They first learned under a Turkish ruler to distinguish murder from justifiable homicide in war. Lying and deceitfulness are considered as marks of mental superiority ; and those who suffer death on the gallows are buried with the same honours as the rich merchant or the sheik." Count Grorzf narrates of the Negroes in Cuba, " Their cha- racter is very degraded ; the moral feeling entirely undevel- oped; all their actions proceed from animal impulse, or a cunning calculation of their own advantage. Generosity and indulgence exhibited by the white man they consider as weak- ness. Power imposes upon them, and excites their hatred, which would become dangerous were they not aware of their powerlessness. The only efficacious punishment for them is the whip. They delight in sowing discord ; are thievish and revengeful ; void of any religious feeling, they are given to the crudest superstition. Their frame, however, is well-de- veloped and powerful; their teeth magnificent: J their legs slender ; they digest like beasts of prey." This certainly is a * Reise-skizzen aus Nordost-Afrilca, vol. i, pp. 162, 175. 1855. f Beise um die Welt (Voyage round the World) in 1844. Stuttgard, 1853. X Mr. Louis Fraser says — " Their mode of mastication is very peculiar, being more like a monkey than a man." — J. H. 44 HUNT ON THE NEGRO'S PLACE IN NATURE. severe judgment, and may be partly explained by the large amount of mixed blood in Cuba. Colonel Hamilton Smith* thus describes the Negro. " The Negro is habitually dormant, but when roused shows his emotion by great gesticulations regardless of circumstances. War is a passion that excites in them a brutal disregard of human feel- ings ; it entails the deliberate murder of prisoners, and victims are slain to serve the manes of departed chiefs. Even canni- balism is frequent among the tribes of the interior. Notwith- standing the listless torpidity caused by excessive heat, the perceptive faculties of the children are far from contemptible ; they have a quick apprehension of the ridiculous, often surpass- ing the intelligence of the White, and only drop behind them about the twelfth year, when the reflective powers begin to have the ascendancy. Collectively, the untutored Negro mind is confiding and single-hearted, naturally kind and hospitable. Both sexes are easily ruled, and appreciate what is good under the guidance of common justice and prudence. Yet where so much that honours human nature remains in apathy, the typical woolly-haired races have never invented or reasoned out a theo- logical system, discovered an alphabet, framed a grammatical lan- guage, nor made the least step in science or art. They have never comprehended what they have learned, or retained a civilisation taught them by contact with more refined nations as soon as that contact had ceased. They have at no time formed great political states, nor commenced a self-evolving civilisation. Conquest with them has been confined to kindred tribes, and produced only slaughter. Even Christianity of more than three centuries' duration in Congo has scarcely excited a progressive civilisation. Thus, even the good qualities given to the Negro by the bounty of nature, have seemed only to make him a slave trodden down by every remorseless foot, and to brand him for ages with the epithet of outcast. The marked, unceasing proof of a curse as old as the origin of society, not even deserving human forbearance, and true it is that the worst slavery is his lot even at home, for he is there exposed to the constant peril of becoming also a victim slaughtered with the most revolting * Unity of the Human Species, p. 190-7. HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 45 torments. Tyrant of his blood, he traffics in slavery as it were merchandise, makes war purposely to capture neighbours, and sells even his own wives and children." Van Amringe observes of the Negro race :* " Even after having lived for centuries with the white people, from whom they have received every possible instruction for the purpose of de- veloping an attribute which would be so serviceable to them, as well as those whom they serve, it is very far from having any virtue for which they are distinguished, or even trusted. The Canaanite (Negro) is indolent, careless, sensual, tyrannical, pre- datory, sullen, boisterous, and jovial. Such are the specific characteristics, and the sensual relations are founded upon them. It has been a favourite theory with some visionary philanthro- pists that intermarriages of the different species would be highly favourable to the race ; but we have never heard of any of them who was willing to commence the practice in their own families. There is certainly no method that could possibly be devised, which would as certainly and as expeditiously de- grade the whole human family as amalgamation. If there is any hope for the improvement of the condition of the dark races, the history of mankind shows it can only be founded upon the preservation of Shemitic (White) species. This is the only species endowed with any power to drag the cumbrous dark races out of the slough in which they have been wallowing for ages." Burmeister, an excellent observer, says :f " I need not en- large on the long hands, slender fingers, and flat feet of the African. Any one who has ever visited a menagerie, cannot fail to have observed the long hand, slender fingers, long nails, the flat foot, the deficient calf, and compressed shank and thigh of the apes, which so much resemble in every respect the peculi- arities of the Negro. I have often tried to obtain an insight into the mind of the Negro ; but it never was worth the trouble ; the only available result obtained was, that there is not much mental life in the Negro, and that all his thoughts * An Investigation of the Theories of the Nahiral History of Man. New York, 1848. f R. nach Brasilien. 1857. 46 HUNT ON THE NEGEO's PLACE IN NATUEE. and actions were merely directed to the lowest requirements of human existence. There is something in the Negro like the cunning forwardness of the monkey tribe, which renders any very familiar intercourse, such as we hare with an European servant, impossible." Carl Vogt has recently observed :* " Most of the characters of the Negro viewed externally remind us irresistibly of the ape ; the short neck, the long lean limbs, the projecting pendu- lous belly, all this affords a glimmer of the ape beneath the human envelope, such similitudes are equally detected on ex- amining the structure of individual parts." Mr. Winwood Eeadef says, "It must be acknowledged, that putting all exceptions aside, the women of Africa are very inferior beings. Their very virtues, with their affections and their industry, are those of well trained domestic animals. But if the women of Africa are brutal, the men of Africa are feminine. Their faces are smooth, their breasts are frequently as full as those of European women; their voices are never gruff or deep. Their fingers are long ; and they can be very proud of their rosy nails. While the women are nearly always ill-shaped after their girlhood; the men have gracefully moulded limbs, and always are after a feminine type — the arms rounded, the legs elegantly formed, without too much muscular develop- ment, and the feet delicate and small." .... "A king of Ashanti cut off the hands of a slave, and bade her scratch his head for vermin with the stumps. If any one had accused him of barbarity he would not have understood the accusation. It was his idea of a good practical joke." J He continues, " It * Vorlesungen ilber den Menschen (seine Stellung in der Schopfung und in der Geschichte der Erde). Giessen, 1863 (seventh lecture). f Savage Africa, ch. 36. £ I know not on what authority Mr. Winwood Reade has made this asser- tion, but Bosman records a similar case which was perpetrated by Angua about a.d. 1691. After recording innumerable cruelties, he goes on to say that one of Anqua's slaves touched a new coral belonging to one of his wives, " But Anqua so resented this innocent freedom, that as soon as I was out of the camp, he caused both wife and slave to be put to death, drinking their blood, as he useth to do those of his enemies. For such another trivial crime, a little before, he had caused the hands of one of his wives to be cut off, after which, in derision, he used to command her to look his head for vermin, which being impossible with her stumps, afforded him no small diversion." — A New and Accurate Description of the Coast of Guinea, by William Bosman, translated from the Dutch, 1705, p. 24. HUNT ON THE NEGEO'S PLACE IN NATUEE. 47 will be understood that the typical Negroes with whom the slavers are supplied, represent the dangerous, the destitute, and the diseased classes of African society. They may be compared to those which in England fill our jails, our work- houses, and our hospitals. So far from being equal to us, the polished inhabitants of Europe, as some ignorant people sup- pose, they are immeasurably below the Africans themselves. The typical Negro is the true savage of Africa, and I must paint the deformed anatomy of his mind as I have already done that of his body. The typical Negroes dwell in petty tribes where all are equal, except the women, who are slaves ; where property is common, and where, consequently, there is no property at all ; where one may recognise the Utopia of philosophers, and observe the saddest and basest spectacles which humanity can afford. The typical Negro, unrestrained by moral laws, spends his days in sloth and his nights in de- bauchery. He smokes haschisch till he stupifies his senses, or falls into convulsions ; he drinks palm-wine till he brings on a loathsome disease ; he abuses children, and stabs the poor brute of a woman whose hands keep him from starvation, and makes a trade of his own offspring. He swallows up his youth in premature vice ; he lingers through a manhood of disease ; and his tardy death is hastened by those who no longer care to find him food. Such are the ' men and brothers' for whom their friends claim, not protection, but equality ! They do not merit to be called our brethren ; but let us call them our children. Let us educate them carefully, and in time we may elevate them ; not to our own level — that, I fear, can never be — but to the level of those from whom they have fallen." This last remark is made in the supposition that the typical Negro is degenerated from some higher African race ; but we think such an hypothesis is not warranted by history, archaeo- logy, or any well established facts. Mr. Readers observations and his description does not quite agree with the ac- countsgenerally given of the Negroes in the Bights or Wind- ward coast. Mr. Readers terminology is far from satisfactory ; all typical Negroes are Africans : but all Africans are not Negroes* 48 HUNT ON THE NEGRO'S PLACE IN NATURE. Dr. Van Evrie, of New York, who has paid considerable at- tention to the character of the Negro, and had ample oppor- tunities for observation, thus describes* the Negro : — " But while the analysis of a single bone or of a single feature of the Negro is thus sufficient to demonstrate the specific cha- racter, or to show the diversity of race, that great fact is still more obviously and with equal certainty revealed in the form, attitude, and other external qualities. The Negro is incapable of an erect or direct perpendicular posture. The general structure of his limbs, the form of the pelvis, the spine, the way the head is set on the shoulders, in short, the tout ensemble of the anatomical formation forbids an erect position. But while the whole structure is thus adapted to a slightly stooping- posture, the head would seem to be the most important agency ; for with any other head, or the head of any other race, it would be impossible to retain an upright position at all. But with the broad forehead and small cerebellum of the white man, it is perfectly obvious that the Negro would no longer possess a centre of gravity ; and therefore, those philanthropic people who would e educate' him into intellectual equality, or change the mental organism of the Negro, would simply render him incapable of standing on his feet, or of an upright position, on any terms. Everyone must have remarked this peculiarity in the form and attitude of the Negro. His head is thrown upwards and backwards, showing a certain though remote ap- proximation to the quadrumana, both in its actual formation and the manner in which it is set on his shoulders. The narrow forehead and small cerebrum — the centre of the intellectual powers, and the projection of the posterior portion, — the centre of the animal functions, render the Negro head radically and widely different from that of the white man. Thus an anato- mist, with the Negro and ourang-outang before him, after a careful comparison, would say, perhaps, that Nature herself had been puzzled where to place them, and had finally compro- mised the matter by giving them an exactly equal inclination to the form and attitude of each other." Dr. Louis Biichnerf has drawn a most graphic picture of — — — . ~ — ™ * On Negroes and Negro Slavery, p. 93-4-7. 1861. f Kraft unci Stoff ; Foree and Matter. Seventh edition. HUNT ON THE NEGRO'S PLACE IN NATURE. 49 some of the physical characters of the Negro : — " An uninter- rupted series of the most various transitions and analogies connect the animal world, from the lowest to the highest. Even man, who in his spiritual pride deems himself elevated above the animal creation, is far from forming an exception to this rule. The Ethiopian race connects him by a number of the most striking analogies with the animal world. The long arms, the form of the foot, the thin calf, the long small hands, the general leanness, the undeveloped nose, the projecting jaw, the low receding forehead, the small head, the narrow pelvis, the pendulous belly, the deficient beard, the colour of the skin, the disgusting odour, the uncleanliness, the grimaces in talking, the shrieking voice, are the many marks which mani- festly exhibit the most decided approach of the Negro to the ape. That he also resembles him in his intellectual capacity, is sufficiently known and established by the best observers." M. Pruner Bey, one of the most eminent of living Anthro- pologists, has written the most complete memoir on the Negro yet published on this subject.* Many years ago he thus ex- pressed himselff respecting the psychological character of the Negro : — " The capacity of the Negro is limited to imitation. The prevailing impulse is for sensuality and rest. No sooner are the physical wants satisfied, than all psychical efforts cease, and the body abandons itself to sexual gratification and rest. The family relations are weak ; the husband or father is quite careless. Jealousy has only carnal motives, and the fidelity of the female is secured by mechanical contrivances. Drunken- ness, gambling, sexual gratification, and ornamentation of the body, are the most powerful levers in the life of the Negro. The whole industry is limited to ornaments. Instead of cloth- ing himself he ornaments his body. Like certain animals, the Negro seems apathetic under pain. The explosions of passion * By the kind permission of the Council, I have been able to print nearly the whole of his last Memoir on the Negro. Some portions are quoted in the text, other parts will be found in copious notes, and I have only omitted the introduction which is merely descriptive of the different African races. Feeling sure that Anthropologists will duly estimate the great value of his Treatise orr the Negro, I am proud to be the means of Dr. Pruner-Bey's labours being made generally known to the English public. f Mgypten's Naturgeschichte. Erlangen, 1847. 50 HUNT ON THE NEGRO'S PLACE IN NATURE. occur when least expected, but are not lasting. The tempera- ment of the Negro has been called choleric, but it is only so to a certain extent. It is a momentary ebullition, followed in- stantly by perfect apathy. Life has for the Negro no longer any value when he cannot supply the physical wants ; he never resists by increased activity, but prefers to die in a state of apathy, or he commits suicide. The Negro has no love for war ; he is only driven to it by hunger. War, from passion or destructiveness, is unknown to him." This is a sufficiently clear and truthful picture, and the following summary, with which M. Pruner Bey concluded his paper, presented to the Paris Anthropological Society, is equally to be commended for * M. Pruner-Bey also says : " It results from the examination of the organization of the Negro, that it is admirably adapted to the geographical position he occupies. The dark layer in his external integument, and its velvety character, like all blackened and rough bodies, favour the radiation of heat, and act as coolers. Experience has proved that black crape protects also the face from the solar reflection in the ascent of snow-covered moun- tains. The great development of the glandular system of the skin favours the secretions, refreshing the skin, and protecting it by an unctuous secre- tion. The thickness of all the layers of the skin protects the Negro from the night frost in his usual condition of nudity. The same considerations apply to the internal integument ; the mucous membrane, with its glutinous and abundant secretion ; and to all glands, without exception, which by their really enormous volume, in harmony with the excitation by heat, favour and facilitate the change, and the reproduction of organic matter so rapidly used up in the torrid zone. Do we pass beyond the limits of science, and lose ourselves in the vicious circle of teleology, if we venture to suppose that even the infantile form of the brain of the Negro may have its relative advan- tages ? What has the noble Hindoo become under an Indian sun, drowned in a sea of spiritualism the most obscure, with his cranium, which by its admirable harmony, its graceful mould, seems exactly to resemble the organic egg which received the Divine breath of Brahma ? He has, it is true, fulfilled an eminent task; but for many centuries he has been a being severed front terrestrial regions, and of little use to his fellow beings. Let us, finally, endeavour to assign to the Negro his place in relation to the quadrumana, to which some authors seriously approximate him, and to that of other human races, which either make use of or despise the Negro. As for me, the moment that an organised being uses for standing and motion that admirable pedestal, the narrow base of which supports an enormous weight; the moment he makes use of the instrument of instruments — the hand; when he expresses his sentiments, his thoughts, his fears, and hopes by speech, I look upon it as a new order of things. While recognising the undoubted value of homologies, which form the bases of zoological science, I cannot but admire the simplicity of the means employed by creative wisdom to sepa- rate man from the anthropomorphous ape. The hair on the skin is reduced ; a suture is suppressed to draw the teeth closer, and, though prognathism is developed, the lips are thickened ; the iliac bones are turned aside instead of being adossed to the vertebral column; the muscles of the thumb are strengthened ; the great toe is fixed ; nature finally, instead of the temporal lobe, selects the anterior lobe of the brain " there to fashion the instrument of intelligence which reflects her image." (Gratiolet.) HUNT ON THE NEGKO's PLACE IN NATURE. 51 its truth and moderation. " The Negro has always appeared to me as partaking of the nature both of the child and the old man. Anatomists worthy of our confidence — Jacquart, Serres, and Huschke — have, in this sense, interpreted the details of the anatomy of the Negro. The elongated form of the cranium, the proportions of the cerebral lobes and their respective forms, the prominence of the inferior border of the orbits, the flattened nose, the rounded larynx, the less marked curves of the verte- bral column, the lateral compression of the thorax and pelvis, with the vertical direction of the iliac bones, the elongated neck of the uterus, the proportion of the parts composing the extremities, the relative simplicity of the cerebral convolutions, etc., are characteristic features of the Negro race, which are found in the foetus or the infant of the Aryan race, in the dif- ferent periods of development. The propensity for amusements, for physical enjoyments, for imitation, and the inconstancy of affection, are the appanage of the Negro as well as of our children. The flexuosity of the arteries, the flattening of the cornea, the weakness of the muscles, the dragging walk, and the early obliteration of the cranial sutures, the obstinacy and love of repose are met with in the Negro as in our aged men. In short, the great curve of human development, and its back- ward direction, appears to be sufficiently extended to appreciate the differences characterising the Negro race as opposed to our race, always taking in account the differential characters result- ing from adaptation to external conditions. If our interpreta- tion leaves open many gaps, the future may fill them up, perhaps, in the same sense. If, finally, the Negro, speaking always figuratively, partakes of the nature of the ape, it must still be admitted that it is not the most ferocious, malicious, nor the most pernicious, but rather the most patient, and fre- quently the most useful animal. In any case, an honourable mediocrity is his inheritance." The general deductions we would desire to make are : — 1 That there is as good reason for classifying the Negro as a distinct species from the European, as there is for making the ass a distinct species from the zebra ; and if, in classi- fication, we take intelligence into consideration, there is a far e2 52 HUNT ON THE NEGRO'S PLACE IN NATURE. greater difference between the Negro and European than between the gorilla and chimpanzee. 2. That the analogies are far more numerous between the Negro and the ape, than between the European and the ape. 3. That the Negro is inferior intel- lectually to the European. 4. That the Negro becomes more humanised when in his natural subordination to the European than under any other circumstances. 5. That the Negro race can only be humanised and civilised by Europeans. 6. That European civilisation is not suited to the Negro's require- ments or character. No man who thoroughly investigates with an unbiassed mind, can doubt, that the Negro belongs to a distinct type. The term species, in the present state of science, is not satis- factory ; but we may safely say that there is in the Negro that assemblage of evidence which would, ipso facto, induce an unbiassed observer to make the European and Negro two distinct types of man. The facts I have quoted are, I believe, sufficient to establish that the Negro is intellectually inferior to the European, and that the analogies are far more numerous between the ape and Negro than between the ape and the European. We shall not enter at length into the three last propositions. Suffice it to say, that no subject needs more attention at the pre- sent time than the position which the Negro race is fitted to hold in Nature. I have said it devolves on the student of the Science of Man to assign to each race the position which it shall hold. This is truly a momentous and most difficult problem, but one which science must not evade. As the student of mechanical science has given to the world his inductions and discoveries, so must the student of the Science of Man endeavour to deduce from actual facts principles of guidance for the relations of one race of Man to another. It is painful to reflect on the misery which has been inflicted on the Negro race, from the prevailing ignorance of Anthropo- logical Science, especially as regards the great question of race. By our ignorance* of the wants and aspirations of the Negro, and * Dr. Van Evrie makes the following remarks respecting the imperfect accounts we have continually received of the Negro. He says (page 49) : HUNT ON THE NEGEO's PLACE IN NATURE. 53 by a mistaken theory respecting his origin, this country has been the means of inflicting a prodigious,, and, at present, totally un- known amount of mischief on these people. Our Bristol and Liverpool merchants, perhaps, helped to benefit the race when they transplanted some of them to America ; and our mistaken legislature has done the Negro race much injury by their absurd and unwarrantable attempts to prevent Africa from exporting her worthless or surplus population. All this has been done on the theoretical assumption of a mental equality of the different races or species of Man. In an attempt to benefit the Negro we have brought on him endless misery, and rendered some of the most beautiful and productive islands in the world of little more use to humanity at large, than they were before their discovery by Columbus.* But men wedded to a theory become blind to all facts, and will learn nothing from experience. All the millions of money which have been spent, and which expenditure has inflicted great hardships on our own working classes, might have been saved had we taken the trouble to investigate the character of the Negro race. " African travellers, explorers, missionaries, &c, ignorant of the ethnology, of the physiology, of the true nature of the Negro, and moreover bitten by modern philanthropy, a disease more loathsome and fatal to the moral, than small-pox or plague to the physical nature, have been bewildered, and perverted, and rendered unfit for truthful observation or useful discovery, before they set foot on its soil or felt a single flush of its burning sun. With the monstrous conception that the Negro was a being like themselves, with the same instincts, wants, &c, the same (latent) mental capacities, all they saw, felt, or reasoned upon in Africa, was seen through this false medium, and therefore of little or no value." * "I cannot avoid repeating that Hayti must not be held up as an ex- ample of what can be accomplished by free labour ; but that it ought rather to be the beacon to warn the government of England against an experiment which may prove absolutely fatal to her colonial system. If it be not wished that a fate similar to that which has befallen Hayti should overtake our colonies, that they should be rendered wholly unproductive to the revenue of the country, and that the property invested in them should be preserved from destruction, the advisers of the Crown must pause before they listen to the ill-judged suggestions of enthusiasts ; for they must banish from their minds the idea that the work of cultivation can be made productive by means of free labour. Such a thing appears to me impossible. The Negro, constituted as he is, has such an aversion to labour, and so great a propensity for indulgence and vice, that no prospect of advantage can stimulate him ; and as for emu- lation it has not the slightest influence over him. Without force he will sink into a lethargy, and revert to his primitive savage character, and the only feasible and effectual plan to promote his civilisation is to persist in those measures which compel him to labour, inculcate morality, and tend to ex- tirpate those vices which are inherent in the descendants of the African race." — Franklin on the Present State of Hayti. 54 HUNT ON THE NEGKO's PLACE IN NATURE. Scientific men have yet to do their duty in showing what are the facts. It may be said that some of the propositions I have advanced are in favour of the slave trade. Such, however, is not my own interpretation of these propositions. No one can be more con- scious of the horrors of the " slave trade" as conducted at this time. Nothing can be worse for Africa generally than the con- tinual capture of innocent men and women by brutal Europeans. Few things can be more horrible than the manner in which it is attempted to carry these people across the Atlantic. Nay, more, nothing can be more unjust than to sell any man, woman, or child, into " slavery", as understood by the Greeks and Romans, where the life of the slave was absolutely at the disposal of the master whenever his caprice or fancy thought fit to take it. We protest against being put forward as advo- cating such views. But while I say this, I cannot shut my eyes to the fact that slavery as understood by the ancients does not exist out of Africa,* and that the highest type of the Negro race is at pre- sent to be found in the Confederate States of America. Far superior in intelligence and physique to both his brethren in Africa and to his " free" brethren in the Federal States, no- where does the Negro attain to such a long life as in the Con- federate States ; and this law formerly obtained in the West * " No man maltreats his wild brother so much as the so-called civilised Negro. He hardly ever addresses his Kruman except by 'you jackass !' and tells him ten times a day that he considers such fellows as the dirt beneath his feet. Consequently he is hated and despised withal, as being of the same colour as, whilst assuming such excessive superiority over, his former equals. No one, also, is more hopeless about the civilisation of Africa than the semi- civilised African returning to the ' home of his fathers.' One feels how hard has been his own struggle to emerge from barbarism. He acknowledges in his own case a selection of species, and he sees no end to the centuries before there can be a nation equal even to himself. Yet in England, and in books, he will cry up the majesty of African kings; he will give the people whom he thoroughly despises a thousand grand gifts of morals and industry, and extenuate, or rather ignore, all their faults and short-comings. I have heard a Negro assert, with the unblushing effrontery which animates a Negro speechifying in Exeter Hall, or before some learned society, that, for in- stance, at Lagos — a den of thieves — -theft is unknown, and that men leave their money with impunity in the storehouse, or in the highway. After which he goes home, ' tongue in cheek/ despising the facility with which an Englishman and his money are parted." — Wanderings in West Africa, vol. i. p. 209. HUNT ON THE NEGKO'S PLACE IN NATURE. 55 India Islands before our mistaken interference. Nowhere does the Negro character shine so brightly as it does in his childish and fond attachment to his master and his family. The Negro cares far more for his master and mistress than he does for his own children after they are a few years old. I by no means join in that indiscriminate abuse of the Negro character which has been indulged in, especially by those who have only seen the Negro in his savage state, or the " emancipated" (from work ?) in the West India Islands. On the contrary, there is much that is to be admired, and more that is useful in the Negro when properly and kindly treated. Brutal masters there are in every part of the world : but we must not found a law on exceptions. Scientific men, therefore, dare not close their eyes to the clear facts, as to the improvement in mind and body, as well as the general happiness, which is seen in those parts of the world in which the Negro is working in his natural subordination* to the European. In some respects, the Negro is certainly not only not inferior, but even far superior to the European. If, for instance, the European were alone in the Confederate States of America, these fertile regions would soon become a barren waste. The Negro is there able to work with impunity, and does himself and the world generally much good by his labour, t Occupations and diseases which are fatal to the * " Of late, it lias become the fashion for the missionary and the lecturer to deny, in the presence of Exeter Hall, the African's recognition of the Euro- pean's superiority. " The white man," writes Mr. Robert Campbell, a mulatto, " who supposes himself respected in Africa because he is white, is grievously mistaken." I distinctly assert the reverse, and every one who has studied the natural history of man, must have the same opinion. The same egregi- ous nonsense was once propounded before the Ethnological Society — where with some ethnology there is no anthropology — by another "African". And yet the propounder, the late Mr. Consular Agent Hansen, whose death, by the bye, was an honour, and the only honour, to his life, had shaved his wool, and at the time was wearing a wig of coal-black hah-, bike a Cherokee's. Is imitation no sign of deference ?" — Wanderings in Western Africa, vol. i. p. 269. f Again, I would call attention to the noble words of Thomas Carlyle. Speaking of labour, he well says : " The thing must be done everywhere ; must is the word. Only it is so terribly difficult to do, and will take genera- tions yet, this of getting our rich European white men ' set to work ! ' But yours in the West Indies, my obscure black friends, yoru* work, and the getting of you set to it, is a simple affair ; and by diligence, the West Indian legislatures, and royal governors, setting their faces fairly to the problem, will get it done. Tou are not 'slaves' now; nor, do I wish, if it can be avoided, to see you slaves again ; but decidedly you will have to be servants to those that are born wiser than you, that are born lords of you — servants to 56 HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. Europeans, are quite harmless to the Negro. By their juxta- position in this part of the world, they confer a material benefit on each other. But it may be asked, " Why remove the Negro from his own country V " Why not humanise him in Africa V No doubt this sounds very plausible, and no pains should be spared to in- troduce every possible humanising influence into Africa. There is little doubt that the African is much easier humanised out of his native land away from all his savage associations ; but this need not prevent us from doing all we can towards civilising him in his own country. It has been affirmed on the best authority (although fre- quently denied) that domestic slaves are only sold in Africa for some crime. No one, we presume, will dare assert that there are no criminals in Africa ! What shall we do with our crimi- nals may be a problem which is occupying the attention of the political economist of Africa — like his Majesty the King of Dahomey — as well as the government of Great Britain. Is Africa not to be allowed to export her criminals, or are they so worthless and unmanageable that no people will have them ? What is to be done with unruly or criminal slaves ? as a king of Old Calabar said,* " You bind me down not to sell them, tell me it is wrong to kill them ! What must I do with them ? I will give you some, and then you won't take them !" the whites, if they are (as what mortal can doubt they are ?) born wiser than you. That, you may depend on it, my obscure black friends, is and was always the law of the world, for you and for all men ; to be servants, the more foolish of us to the more wise, and only sorrow, futility, and disappoint- ment will betide both, till both in some approximate degree get to conform to the same. Heaven's laws are not repealable by earth, however earth may try — and it has been trying hard, in some directions, of late ! I say, no well being, and in the end no being at all, will be possible for you or us, if the law of Heaven is not complied with. And if 'slave' mean essentially ' servant hired for life,' — for life, or by a contract of long continuance, and not easily dissoluble— I ask, whether in all human things, the ' contract of long continuance' is not precisely the contract to be desired were the right terms once found for it? Servant hired for life, were the right terms once found, which I do not pretend they are, seems to me much preferable to servant hired for the month, or by contract dissoluble in a day. An ill-situated servant that ; — that servant grown to be nomadic ; between whom and his master a good relation cannot easily spring up ! " * The late King Eyamba made this remark to the late Dr. Lawton in 1850, who told it to Mr. W. H. Ashniall, a Liverpool merchant who has resided for eighteen years on the West Coast of Africa, and to whom I am indebted for his approval of the chief facts contained in this paper. HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 57 Would it not be well to allow a regular export of the surplus population, instead of permitting, and indeed encouraging the butcheries of the so called King of Dahomey ? The difficulties of humanising, much less of civilising, the Negro in his own country are very great ; yet, if such healthy sentiments were generally diffused in this country as have been lately published in an admirable work, entitled Wanderings in West Africa, it is impossible to say what great results might in time be at- tained. This author well says, " Ever remember, that by far the greater number of the liberated were the vilest of criminals in their own lands, and that in their case exportation becomes, in fact, the African form of transportation/'* There is abundant evidence to show that the Negro will not work without a considerable amount of persuasion. Even Dr. R. Olarkef is obliged to admit that the Creoles of Sierra Leone ' ' manifest the utmost contempt for agricultural pursuits, and the same feeling seems to actuate the half educated libe- rated African lads." Another writer observes J that " In Sierra Leone the christian tenderness of the British Govern- ment has tended to demoralise them The women have become as vicious as those of Egypt, the basest of kingdoms — worse than the men, bad as they are Theft is carried to such an extent, that no improvement is possible at Freetown." * Wanderings in West Africa, vol. i, p. 220. f Sierra Leone. By Robert Clarke, p. 38. Dr. R. Clarke speaking of the Africans of Sierra Leone, says {Transac- tions of the Ethnological Society, vol. ii, new series, p. 331) — " Servants con- sider it no crime to rob the white man, and so long as they are undetected they do not lose caste among their equals, although the latter may be aware of their thefts. . . . They appear to hold agricultural pursuits in contempt, preferring to obtain situations in the government offices and merchants' stores ; while the young women seek employment as sempstresses, etc., seldom entering service as domestics. . . . Comparatively few of the female Creoles are married, and in a colony where the marriage ceremony is held in but little esteem, and generally dispensed with, young girls live as concubines, or " sweethearts," as they phrase it (p. 332) . The civilised blacks spare no expense in obtaining the best and newest style of Exu-opean dress ; and this love of finery too often becomes quite a passion amongst the young people, its inordinate indulgence occasionally leading to pilfering and other dis- honest acts (p. 326). The Africans are very litigious, and constantly sum- mon each other on the most trivial occasions (p. 330). In one instance (of children born with supernumerary fingers) which came to my knowledo-e, the infant was on this account, soon after its birth, burnt alive; and, in another case, the child was destroyed by twisting its neck, when it was buried in a dung heap" (p. 333). J Wanderings in West Africa, p. 267. 58 HUNT ON THE NEGEO's PLACE IN NATUKE. I have stated that one of the results of my inquiry leads me to believe that English institutions are not suited to the Negro race. There seems to be a maximum testimony to show that the liberated and the Creoles in our colonies are a perfectly worthless set. They accept all the vices of our civilisation with none of its duties. A recent public writer in behalf of the English colonies on the west coast of Africa well says : — " The African is far more innocent and natural a crea- ture when he has never been brought within the range of civilised life. The liberated Africans are far superior to the rising generation — in energy, in talent, and in honest prin- ciples. To handle a hoe has now become a disgrace, and the people have lost their manhood by becoming gentlemen . . . only the ignorant can boast of the extensive freedom we have given the African. Freedom indeed we should have given, but it ought to have been qualified to suit their capacities.'" * In now bringing my remarks to a close, I cannot, perhaps, do better than quote the graphic picture of the present state of Africa, which has been only published during the last few weeks. There is much true science and healthy manhood in these sentiments. The work of which I speak is evidently the work of a man who has devoted much attention to the study of the great science of mankind ; and I am pleased to find that my own views find ample support in the conclusions of this accomplished and scientific observer. Speaking of the Negroes of Bonny, he says :f " The slaves wore a truly miser- able appearance, lean and deformed, with Krakra lepra and fearful ulcerations. It is in these places that one begins to feel a doubt touching the total suppression of slavery. The chiefs openly beg that the rules may be relaxed, in order that they may get rid of their criminals. This is at present impossible, and the effects are a reduplication of misery ; we pamper our convicts, Africans torture them to death. Cheapness of the human article is another cause of immense misery to it. In some rivers a canoe crew never lasts three years. Pilfering — * The editor of the Sierra Leone Weekly Times, July 30, 1862, quoted in Wanderings in West Africa, vol. i, p. 221. f Wanderings in West Africa, vol. ii, p. 280. HUNT ON THE NEGRO'S PLACE IN NATURE. 59 ' Show me a black man and I will show yon a thief/ say the traders — and debauchery are natural to the slave, and they must be repressed by abominable cruelties. The master thinks nothing of nailing their hands to a water-cask, of mutilating them in various ways ; many lose their eyes by beiug peppered, after the East Indian fashion, with coarsely-powdered cayenne, their ears are cut off, or they are flogged. The whip is com- posed of a twisted bullock's or hippopotamus's hide, sun dried, with a sharp edge at the turns, and often wrapped with copper wire ; it is less merciful even than the knout, now historical. The operation may be prolonged for hours, or for a whole day, the culprit's arms being tied to a rafter, which keeps them at full stretch, and every fifteen minutes or so, a whack that cuts away the flesh like a knife, is administered. This is a favourite treatment for guilty wives, who are also ripped up, cut to pieces, or thrown to the sharks. If a woman has twins, or becomes mother of more than four, the parent is banished, and the children are destroyed. The greatest insult is to point at a man with arm and two fingers extended, saying at the same, ISTama shubra, i. e.} one of twins, or a son of some lower animal. When a great man dies, all kinds of barbarities are com- mitted ; slaves are buried, or floated down the river bound .to bamboo sticks and mats, till eaten piecemeal by sharks. The slave, as might be expected, is not less brutal than his lord. It amazes me to hear Englishmen plead that there is moral degradation to a Negro bought by a white man, and none when serving under a black man. The philanthropists, doubtless, think how our poorer classes at home, in the nineteenth cen- tury, would feel if hurried from liberty to eternal servitude by some nefarious African. But can any civilised sentiments belong to the miserable half-starved being, whose one scanty meal of vegetable per day is eked out with monkey and snake, cat and dog, maggot and grub ; whose life is ceaseless toil, varied only by torture, and who may be destroyed at any moment by a nod from his owner ? When the slave once sur- mounted his dread of being shipped by the white man, nothing under the sun would, I believe, induce him willingly to return to what he should call his home. And, as they were, our West GO HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. Indian colonies were lands of happiness compared with Oil Rivers ; as for the ' Southern States/ the slave's lot is para- dise when succeeding what he endures on the YVest Coast of Africa. I believe these to be facts, but tant pis joourlesf aits. Presently, however, the philanthropic theory shall fall, and shall be replaced by a new fabric built upon a more solid foundation." Finally let me observe, ' that it is not alone the man of science who has discerned the Negro's unfitness for civilisation as we understand it. Here is the opinion of Mr. Anthony Troll ope,* who is certainly quite guiltless of ever having exa- mined the evidence on the distinction of the Negro and Euro- pean, and yet truly says of the Negroes : — cc Give them their liberty, starting them well in the world at what expense you please, and at the end of six months they will come back upon your hands for the means of support. Everything must be done for them ; they expect food, clothes, and instruction as to every simple act of life, as do children." We must for the present leave alone all questions as to the origin of the Negro, and simply take him as he exists, and not as poets or fanatics paint him. We shall then learn, that it is only by observation and experiment that we can determine the exact place in nature which the Negro race should hold, and that it is both absurd and chimerical to attempt to put him in any other. f * North America, vol. ii, p. 85. 3rd Edition. 1862. t We believe the following opinion of Mr. George M'Henry can be con- firmed by all who have narrowly watched the position of " Free" Negroes in the Federal States. He says that " he has resided nearly all his life in Pennsylvania, where exists the largest community of free Negroes in the world, and he can testify to the gradual decay in their health and morals as slavery disappeared from the neighbourhood. Neither the laws of the land, nor public societies for his benefit, prevent the African from degenerating ; nothing but the controlling influence of a master will keep him from sinking to that barbarous condition which is his natural state," — The Cotton Trade Considered in Connection with Negro Slavery in the Confederate States, 1863, p. 259. Many other interesting and important facts, showing the superiority of the " Slave" over the " Free" Negro, will be found in this valuable work. Another public writer, Mr. George Augustus Sala, gives the following picttire (not derived from the study of Anthropology) of the Free Negroes of New York, vide Daily Telegraph, Jan. 2, 1864. — " Hundreds of witnesses could, if need- ful, be put into the box to prove how utterly puerile and irresponsible the vast majority of these poor people are. From the old slaves who crawl about the houses of their owners, fed for nothing and not worked, saying APPENDIX. After reading the foregoing* paper, I was favoured with an account of Dr. Pruner-Bey's further researches since he published his first " Memoir," and as he has kindly placed them at my entire disposal, I have thought it advisable to annex a translation of M. Pruner-Bey's obliging communication. and doing what they please, and sleeping with their feet so thrtist into the embers on the hearth that they scorch their toe-nails off, to the little black brats snuggling like so many guinea-pigs about the floors of southern houses ; from these to the women who buy silk umbrellas instead of childbed linen, and who come roaring to their mistress for remedies if they have a sore finger or a soft corn — -who will only take medicine when they are sick froni her hand— and who, as mothers, are so shamefully neglectful of, and wantonly cruel to, their children, that the white ladies are often compelled to take the little ones away from their unnatural -parents to preserve their lives — it is the same lamentable case of an inferior and impracticable race. And in the North — the free North — the land of liberty, of intelligence, of newspapers, and Methodist chapels, and common schools ; do they fare better there ? I declare that, of all the miserable and woe-begone objects I have ever beheld out of a Russian goal or an Italian lazar-house, the free Negroes I have seen in New York are the wretchedest and most forlorn. Take away those who are coachmen or body- servants in private families, and who are clad in some kind of decent livery by the employers; take away a proportion of mUattoes and 'bright' coloured people, amongwhich class thewomen areoften given to tawdry finery in apparel, but seldom to personal cleanliness ; take away a few, a very few old Negroes, who have made money by storekeeping, and wear broadcloth and tall hats ; and the residue is a listless, decrepit, drowsy, cowering race, always going to the wall, always sliding and slinking away, always ragged, always dirty — lying and pilfering and tipsifying themselves in a feckless, shambling kind of way — horribly overgrown children — cretins whose goitres are on their brains instead of in their throats. In the back slums of New York you meet them prowling about with baskets full of scraps and offal. When the police rout out some dilapidated tenement at the Five Points, they are sure to find Negroes lurking and snoozling among the rubbish. Let a streak of sunshine be cast across the pavement, and you are sure to find a Negro sitting on a doorstep, basking in the radiant warmth." 62 HUNT ON THE NEGEO's PLACE IN NATUEE. " The gallery of the Jardin des Plantes has, since the publi- cation of my Memoir on Negroes, received eleven more crania belonging to the same family, nine of which are those of males, and two of females. Three of the former belong to the tribe of Shir, inhabiting the banks of the White Nile ; the other six are those of a Wolof, of a Thiong of Low Casamance, two of Krumans, and two of Grriots. Of the two female crania, one belonged to a Negress of Saloum, and the other to a Grriot. " On comparing the subjoined table of measurements with that of the Memoir, it will be observed, that as regards the circumference, the crania of the new series are more volu- minous than those of the first series. Moreover, the mean vertical diameter is here sensibly larger, whilst that of the width differs but little from that in the first series. All these new crania present the ellipsoid form ; they are dolichocepha- lous, and more or less prognathous. ' l As regards the circumference, it attains in the Shir only 490, 520, and 530 millimeters ; whilst in the rest it oscillates between 530 and 75 mm. The last figure refers to the Wolof cranium, a very vigorous Negro tribe, often praised for their beauty. This cranium is very massive and coarse. The fol- lowing are its chief features : — forehead low, narrow, and re- ceding ; a protuberance formed by the confluence of the super- ciliary arches with the glabella. Expansion of the face enormous compared with that of the forehead. Viewed in front the cranium presents the contours of a narrow lozenge. The nasal aperture corresponds, by its elliptic form, with that of the cranium. The nasal bones are short and narrow ; the orbits very spacious, inclined downwards and outwards ; their inferior margins, of considerable thickness, advance much beyond the superior. The malar bones are very high, thick, and form a rounded prominence in front ; the jaws, as well as the teeth, are very strong ; the latter are, in this individual, much used up and partly carious. Ohin — square, high, and wide — projects but little. Prognathism apparently inconsider- able. This Negro has, what is called, an open physiognomy. I have dwelt upon the preceding details, in order to show by an example to what extent tribes and individuals, reputed hand- APPENDIX. 63 some, may deviate from the gross type of the great Nigritiau stock, without, however, transgressing the limits which sepa- rate the African Negro from the other human races. ec Apart from the nose, which is natter than that of the Wolof, the cx*anium of the Thiong, with a circumference of 550 millimeters, approaches the latter by the elongated con- tours of the face. The Krumans, on the contrary, present a type differing from the preceding ; for their face is compara- tively short, compact, and wide. Their cerebral cranium is also distinguished by the great development of the vertical diameter. It is, consequently, by these two crania that the mean of this diameter has reached the point indicated in the table. " The three crania of the Shir Negroes, one of which is that of a young subject, demonstrate what had already been ob- served upon the living natives of the Nilotic region, that it is wrong to consider them more favourably organised than the western tribes. One of these crania (No. 2,919) abounds in the animal character of the face. Fortunately, its prognathism is moderate, whilst in No. 2,920 prognathism is excessive by the side of less coarse features.* " The crania of the two Negresses did not present anything deserving particular notice/'' * " Nature thus applies its means of compensation, even upon individuals belonging to more or less savage races, in order not to leave us in any doubt as regards the limits which physically separate man from the brute, at least as regards the form and the disposition of parts." [Table. 64 HUNT ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATUEE. CEEEBBAL CEANIUM. 1. DIAMETEES (with the Callipers). Anteroposterior Vertical f Inferior frontal j Superior frontal Transverse j Bi-teniporal Diameters Bi-auricular . Bi-parietal Bi-rnastoidian Decomposed in : 1. Middle part 2. Inferior part 2. CUEVES (with the Metrical Tape). Horizontal circumference . Transverse bi-auricular curve Vertical antero-posterior circumference . " Frontal part . Parietal part . Occipital part . ^Length of the occipital hole Distance from the anterior border of the foramen and the frontal eminence (ap- proximative) 3. OTHEE MEASUBES. Distance in a straight } to the nasal eminence line from the auditory > to the occipital protu- canal . . .) berance Dimensions of the occipital foramen \ ■ a, 4. MILLESIMAL PEOPOBTIONS. Mean Measures in Millimeters, Circumferences ( horizontal circumference ^ vertical circumference ( length (antero-posterior diameter) Diameters < Width (bi-parietal diameter) (. Height (vertical diameter) . DESIGNATION OF MEASUBES. Total length of the face, from the superciliary line to the inferior margin of the chin . n ,-, fto the superciliary line • r. • (mai or length of nose) . interior , v /? . & i . ' i < to ironto - nasal sutiu-e nasal spine Maximum length of the superior jaw from the fronto-inaxillary suture to the superior alveolar arch ...... Maximum distance of the two zygomatic arches . C Distance of the two angles From the symphysis to the angle in a straight line .... Length of the vertical branch C height ..... Partial length of the face Inferior jaw. Orbital (minor length of nose) . l^to inferior border of chin aperture ^ width Mean of 9 Negroes. 187 133 99 115 117 115 137 121 535 321 522 117 137 118 38 114 114 Mean of 2 Negresses 178 127 93 109 115 108 130-5 110 517 310 489-5 111-5 125 111 32 110 110 113 36 30.7 107 32 28 1000 975 1000 732 711 1000 946 1000 733 713 135 113 56 54 47 74 44 59 64 130 100 59-5 124 88 99 66 32-4 35 92 58 33 35-5 65 On the Weight of the Brain in the Negro. By Thomas B. Peacock, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to St. Thomas's Hospital and to the Hospital for Diseases of the Chest, Victoria Park.* Professor Tiedemann, in the paper on " The Weight of the Brain in the Negro/' published in the Philosophical Transac- tions for 1836, reports only one original observation of the weight of a recent brain, and quotes two others from Som- mering and one from Sir Astley Cooper. His conclusions are, indeed, mainly drawn from measurements of the contents of the cranial cavity of dry skulls, a method of estimating the capacity of the brain obviously very imperfect. During the last few years I have had the opportunity of weighing the recent brain of Negroes in four instances, and two other observations were published by the late Professor John E,eid in his tables of the weights of the different organs of the human body.f I propose in this paper to bring to- gether these observations, and to deduce from them such in- ferences as they warrant, as a contribution to a more accurate knowledge of the weight of the brain in the Negro. The observations are as follows : — (See Table overleaf.) From these observations it will be seen that the mean weight of the Encephalon in 4 males, is 44 oz. 12-6 drchms. Extremes, 46 oz. 2j drchms., and 43 oz. 8 drchms. Mean weight of the cerebrum in 3 males, 38 oz. 14-08 drchms. Extremes, 38 oz. and 40 oz. 2^ drchms. Mean weight of the Cerebellum with pons Varolii and me- dulla oblongata in 3 males, 6 oz. 5*7 drchms. Extremes, 7 oz. and 6 oz. 0t drchms. * Read February 16, 1864. f London and Edinburgh Monthly Journal of Medical Science, 1843 and 1847, and Pathological Transactions, 1860-61, vol. xii. "1 Pi M H O H w o I — I J3 tt$e 1> lO CD 140 ,tio of ilium ■ Var. a Obi. >phalo cb 05 5> l> do o O o o ,3 Jo wnS o P^ o C ® S3 +3 -P 43 43 i— i ^ t-H r-H op 05 CS) <3s CO o ■4|,opq 05 CO CS <D o o P3 53 ° 4= 43 o i— 1 t-H fl J^ CO co CI o . o rgr§> 00 ■* ■* 05 6 ■* 05 CD o -3 o •43 srcq CO CO do" o o O O «bS 43 -1-3 43 43 fd iH 1—1 T-H T-H 1 o t-H o oo I^S* -5 S O CD S|1 o i> CD CD LO [S cS g a J> CO CO s ■5 . T-H ,0 o "S" Iffl ■* fe o o 1 1 qo o Ol oo C5 HH ,o H u N oo oo o lO £ O O CO CO T? CO o Sco oo o 05 o o "3 -a T3 a. N«0 ira "* CD t-H CD d c-«Ji ■tf ■* -* "* "* H o^1 a5* CO J> 00 CO ^oo 05 CD CD OS tspq T-l 1-1 o t-H ^ o ■+= o oo <«l <N 05 05 -* <N CD 3 "§.3 m W *H 4J,C|^ CD r£| .9 b p-i n 9 a > ' j3 . . CD T^ ' N _m : 'to ' '3 a ^4-t «4H C+H o o o ; CO d m S m c3.g <D o> 53 fl < 03 ^H* 0;£ •$*& p, . H o a „ .,.9 Ph o as |1 ^T^l 9 iH . 0J hD ■ ^43 a • ^ 2 a.^pa *— ' w rt • pi 2^ a £j'r3 3rD! EACE and ATJSE OF D ?H 0) t> CD . t-H ."-^CD 9 43 be 5 PI - s ■ H H ffl o o I53 <*, «} M fc < ,_, 05 CO ■<? w CD 6 "A V / ^ 1 V V "SaiVK •saivKiaj: IN THE NEGRO. 67 Mean weight of the Encephalon in 2 females, 43 oz. 8 drchms. Extremes, 46 oz. and 41 oz. The foregoing observations are so limited in number that it is impossible to decide how far they represent the average weight of the encephalon and its several parts in Negroes. The observations previously published are also too few to supply the deficiency ; but, so far as they go, they do not differ very materially, when the weights employed are capable of being ascertained. In the cases given by Sommering the weight used was avoirdupois, and they are 42 oz. 3 drchms. in a boy of fourteen, and 45 oz. 4 drchms. in a tall handsome man of twenty. Sir Astley Cooper does not mention the weight employed, but says that the brain of a large Negro weighed 49 oz. Tiede- mann's case was a man of twenty-five years of age, thin, and hardly five feet high, and the brain is stated to have weighed 2 lbs. 3 oz. and 2 drchms., but the weight is not named, though it is elsewhere stated that the other observations were in troy or apothecaries' weight. If so, the organ was extremely light. Indeed, it appears probable, that it was not weighed till after it had been immersed in spirit and had lost considerably in weight. 2. It is well known that the brain varies in size in the two sexes, at different periods of life, increasing up to about twenty- five years of age and again declining in after life. It becomes, therefore, necessary, in forming any estimate of the relative weight of the brain in the Negro and in the European, to com- pare the organs in persons of the same age. I have, therefore, taken from the tables of the weight of the brain published by Dr. Reid and myself, all the weights in men between twenty- one and forty years of age, inclusive ; and in females between twenty-one and thirty (these periods embracing the ages of the Negroes whose brains were weighed), and calculated the ave- rage weights. The results are as follows : — Of 105 males between twenty-one and forty years inclusive, the mean weight of the brain was 50 oz. 5"56 drchms. ; and the three heaviest weighed 62 oz. 8 drchms., 62 oz., and 61 oz. 2 drchms. The three lightest weighed 38 oz., 40 oz. 8 drchms., and 40 oz. 10 drchms. f 2 68 ON THE WEIGHT OF THE BRAIN Of thirty-four females between twenty-one and thirty years inclusive, the mean weight of the brain was 44 oz. 7*47 drchms. The three heaviest weighed 50 oz., 50 oz., and 49 oz. The three lightest weighed 39 oz., 39 oz. 2 drchms., and 39 oz. 14 drchms. It will thus be seen that the brain did not attain in any of the four Negroes the average of the European brain by several ounces ; while of the two brains of Negresses, one somewhat exceeded the European average. On the other hand, in none of the Negro brains in either sex was the weight so low as in some of the brains of Europeans. The relations which the Negro brains bear to the whole of those weighed, are shown in the following tables : — Of the 105 brains of European males there weighed from 38 oz. to 41 oz. inclusive 3 ratio p. c. 2"85 41 )> and under 46 )) }) 11 )j 10-47 Ne groes 3 46 )> )) 51 >) >> 51 j) 48-56 >) 1 51 a )) 56 }) >) 25 )} 23-80 56 )> )> 61 j) )} 11 )> 10-47 61 33 to 62 8 }} 33 4 3) 3-80 Of thirty four brains of European females there weighed from 39 oz. to 41 oz. inclusive 6 ratio p. c. 17" 64 41 „ and under 46 „ „ 14 „ 41*17 Negresses 1 46 „ „ 51 „ „ 14 „ 41-17 „ 1 3. The ratio of the encephalon to the weight of the whole body is liable to great variations from the state of stoutness or emaciation of the bodies. Thus, I find from a considerable number of observations, calculated in the papers before referred to, that the proportions varied in persons of the male sex residing in England and Scotland, from twenty-one to forty years of age inclusive, from 1 to 25 "2 to 1 to 52 -3, and the mean of twelve observations in persons between twenty-one and forty-four was 1 to 32- 73. The calculations based on the observations in this communication show a range in the Negro from 1 to 24'3 to 1 to 44-3. There is only one observation in a Negress, but in this the proportion is 1. to 36.9. The range in European females between twenty-one and thirty years of age, inclusive, being 1 to 27 and 1 to 38.9, and the mean of IN THE NEGRO. 69 five observations in persons from twenty-four to forty-two years of age 1 to 39"2. 4. The weight of the cerebellum alone is given in only three cases in Negroes (two males and one female) ; from these it appears that in males the weights were 4 oz. 7§- drchms., and 5 oz. 3 drchms. ; in the Negress the weight was 4 oz. 13 drchms. In thirty-two European males, the mean weight of the cerebellum was 5 oz. 3 drchin., and the range from 4 oz. 6 drchm. to 6 oz. In nineteen European females, the mean weight was 4 oz. 13*4 drchms., and the range from 4 oz. to 5 oz. 8 drchms. 5. The relation of the cerebellum, with the pons Varolii and medulla oblongata, to the whole encephalon, ranged in the Negro from 1 to 6" 7 to 1 to 7"6. In European males, from 21 to 40 years of age inclusive, the range was from 1 to 6 to 1 to 8" 7. There is only one observation in a Negress : in this, the proportion is 1 to 8' 5. In European females, between twenty- one and thirty-years of age inclusive, the range was from 1 to 7-2 to 1 8-9. It would thus appear that the average weight of the cere- bellum, and the proportions which the weight of the cerebellum with the pons Varolii and medulla oblongata bear to the whole encephalon, do not very materially differ in the Negro and in the European. Sir Wm. Hamilton* estimated the weight of the brain by measuring with sand the capacity of the cranial cavity in fully three hundred human skulls ; and Professor Tiedemann adopted a similar method with reference to two hundred and forty-eight skulls of different races, except that he employed dry millet-seed in place of sand. The former gentleman concluded " that the common doctrine that the African brain, and particularly that of the Negro, is greatly smaller than that of the European, is false. By comparison of two Caffre skulls, male and female, and thirteen Negro crania (six male, five female, and two of doubtful sex) , the encephalon of the African was found not in- ferior to the average size of the European." Professor Tiede- mann inferred from forty-one observations of the capacity of * Monro's Anatomy of the Brain, p. 5, Edinburgh, 1831. 70 ON THE WEIGHT OP THE BRAIN the skulls of Africans (thirty- eight males and three females), " that the brain of the Negro is, upon the whole, quite as large as that of the European and other human races." The few observations here given of the weight of the recent brain in Negroes, tend generally to support the conclusions of Sir William Hamilton and Professor Tiedemann, that there is no very marked difference between the ordinary size of the brain in the African and the European • but they certainly in- dicate that the brain is usually somewhat smaller in the former race than in the latter. These observations must, however, as before stated, be regarded only as a contribution towards a more accurate knowledge of the weight of the brain in the Negro. To ascertain the general average, and the range of weight in different races of Africans, and in different indivi- duals of the same race, a very much more extended series of observations is necessary ; for it is fair to suppose that there is great variety in these respects. The weight of the brain is also influenced by the nature of the diseases producing death. In cases where the patient has been killed when in full vigour, or where death has rapidly resulted from disease, the brain is generally found to weigh more than when death has followed prolonged illnesses of an exhausting character. It would, therefore, be necessary to institute a thoroughly satisfactory comparison, that the weights compared should be those of persons dying under similar circumstances. The observations here published are much too few to admit of any such analysis. P.S. — My attention has recently been drawn to a statement by Dr. Hunt, that M. Broca has found the weight of the brain in an European to be 1,003 grammes, and in a Negro, 925*5 grammes, or 35*5 ounces and 32'5 ounces avoirdupois or Im- perial, respectively. The weight of the European brain as given by M. Broca, is, however, much below the average. My own observations, deduced from one hundred and thirty-one obser- vations, give the average weight of the male European as 50 oz. 3'25 drachms, and of the female, from seventy-four observations, as 44 oz. 14"3 drachms. M. Parchappe estimated the weight of the brain of the adult European male at 1,352 IN THE NEGRO. 71 grammes, and of the female at 1,229 grammes, or 47*5 oz. and 43 '2 oz. avoirdupois, respectively. It is probable, also, that the Negro brain weighed by M. Broca, was below the usual weight ; indeed, I am inclined to believe either that the brain was not that of an adult, or that it had lost considerably in weight from having been immersed in spirits before being weighed. The great diminution in weight which results from maceration of the brain in rectified spirits is shown by the first of the following observations, and the rapidity with which such diminution takes place by the second : — Weight of brain of an idiot child, weighed January 1859, 23 oz. 3i drachms. Weight in December 1863, 14 oz. 8 drachms : loss, 8 oz. Hi drachms. Weight of the brain of a female, aged thirty-two, who had died of phthisis, weighed in December 23rd, 1863, 47^ oz. Weight on December the 29th, 39^ oz. : loss 8| oz. 72 Observations on the Past and Present Populations of the New World. By William Bollaert, F.B.G.S., F.A.S.L., Cor- responding Member of the University of Chile, Ethno- logical Society of London, of New York, etc.* I premise these remarks by stating that I lean rather to the poly genistic than to the monogenistic view of human creation ; and to simplify the matter of my subject, I will consider for the present the red or copper-coloured men of the New World to be of one species of the genus Homo, a species in the scale of intelligence, peculiar to itself. I have come to this conclusion by a study of their various personal cha- racteristics, their languages — without alphabets — forms of government, works of art of more than one period ; but more particularly, as it would seem, of a different physiological con- dition when compared with other species of mankind. The monogenists believe in one creation only, viz., that of the white man, from which has resulted their yellow, brown, red, and black races. Other monogenists tell us there are superior and inferior breeds, and that the inferior at times die out, as weaker weeds disappear among the strong growing grasses. If we lean to the polygenistic view, or that of sepa- rate creations, it will, I think, render our study of Anthropo- logy and Ethnology less complex, and when we have learnt our lesson, we shall then see which of the two arrangements is the more logical. We are told by some writers that the in- vestigations of Darwin on the variations of species, set aside objections to an origin from one stock. But it is not for me to treat here upon the theories of Progression or Transmutation ; or of Darwin's views " On the Origin of Species by Variation and Natural Selection ;" or on Huxley's "Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature ;" or the action of unlimited time according to Lyell, for the slow and gradual formation of what are de- nominated Caucasian, Mongolian, Negro, and other races, seeing that I have adopted the polygenistic arrangement of * Bead May 12, 1863. POPULATIONS OP THE NEW WORLD. 73 human creation. As for the primeval species of men, they may- have existed in the pliocene, miocene, or even an older period. With the polygenistic idea, the principal species, or as called sometimes, races, realms, or types of man, as regards colour, may be placed as follows, — 1. White; 2. Brown; 3. Yellow; 4. Red; 5. Black; from which, proceed varieties by endless mixtures. As a general description, the red man has long lank black hair, a heavy brow, a dull eye, a full com- pressed lip, and a salient and dilated nostril. Before the discovery of the New World by Columbus in 1492, its population was really divided into Ethnic groups ; many had gone through various phases of their own peculiar domestic and political existence, some being more advanced in government than others, and at the period of the Spanish, conquest, or even before, many appear to have arrived at the apex of a civilisation at which their own organisation and in- telligence permitted them to arrive, — not a high, standard, if compared with the powers of mind and body of the white man. It is very difficult to say what was the amount of population in America before its discovery by Europeans ; but we do know for certain that it has very much dimi- nished ; in the first instance through the cruelties of the Spaniards, the introduction of European diseases and enslave- ment, causing the entire disorganisation of the aboriginal nationalities. It has been estimated that before the discovery of America the population amounted to over 100,000,000. Mexico alone had 20 millions ; New Granada, 8 millions ; the United States, two hundred years since, had 1 7 millions ; at present there may be about 10 to 11 millions in all, by my calculation. Las Casas maintained that within the first forty years of the discovery of America, twelve to fifteen millions of the natives had been destroyed by the Spaniards. Let us bear in mind, also, that millions of Negro slaves have been imported from Africa as a mere working popu- lation for the European, to fill up the void caused by their extermination of a people who were not found to have gene- rally great industrial propensities. According to the best statistics I have been able to examine, the present population 74 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT of the New World is over 73| millions* (73,842,833), including nearly 26 millions for the Spanish American Republics, and say 32 millions for the United States of America. Commencing with North America, and coming down to the north frontier of Mexico, the country was occupied by various nations and innumerable tribes ; these had been builders of earthworks il of the primaeval and pre-architectural periods," hunters, and warriors. It is not easy to give them ethnic or political positions, but for want of a better we may call them the nations and tribes of red men of the north, having much in common as to the state of society they had attained. They had languages, dialects, and numbers, but they had not arrived — and in this there is a common agreement throughout the New World — at the discovery of an alphabet, at least no alpha- betic form has as yet been discovered. The next assemblage of nations — and they were great builders in stone at an early date — we will call the Mexican, including those interesting groups of men of Central America down to the Isthmus of Darien ; this was truly a great ethnic realm, containing a people having powers of no ordinary character when compared with others to the north and south of them. Two great streams of emigration seem to have gone from the Mexican region in very early times, peopling the West India islands ; one was found to* be of a pacific character, these we will call Lucayaus, when they had taken up their abode there ; the other had warrior propensities, and were styled Caribsf by the Spaniards, this word meaning brave in the Carib or Galibi language. We now come to the great nations of South America ; first, principally, the Chibcha or Muysca, occupying at the time of the Spanish conquest the table-lands of Bogota; but these nations, like the Mexican and Peruvian, were seated on the ruins of others, and which also had worked in stone. Con- tinuing south we arrive at another collection of table-lands. The first nation we hear of were the Quitus ; these were con- * The Abeille Medicate, Paris, gives, in 1863, for the whole population of the globe, 1,321,000,000. f The Caribs have been sometimes, but erroneously, called " Indios Ne- gros," or black Indians. There are no Negro-coloured Indians. POPULATIONS OF THE NEW WORLD. 75 quered by the Caras or Caranes, who went to Quito from the coast of the Pacific, but these were conquered in turn by the later Incas of Peru. The next assemblage of people occupied the extensive countries now known as Peru and Bolivia. This land had been very early selected by nations, some of which have left remarkable sculptured stone monuments, particularly at Tia-Huanacu, nearly 13,000 feet above the level of the sea, on the south shore of Lake Titicaca ;* but when the Spaniard ravaged the country, it had been possessed, through long years of conquest, by the Inca dynasty, whose seat of govern- ment was at Cuzco, to the north of Lake Titicaca, and far from the coast. To the south, in Chile, roamed amongst others, the still unconquered Araucano tribes ; and in this same category may be placed those now known as Patagonians, Guaranis, tribes of Brazil, of the Amazon, and those of the shores washed by the West Indian Sea, these last of Carib character. The following may have been about the ethnographic po- sition as regarded the nationalities in the New World be- fore its discovery by Columbus : — Bed nations of the north ; Mexican and Central American nations, to the Lucayans and Caribs of the West Indies ; Chibcha nations of New Granada ; Quitu-Cara nations of Quito ; Peruvian nations of Peru and Bolivia ; Araucanos, and other tribes of Chile ; tribes of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego ; tribes of the Pam- pas and Guarani ; tribes of Brazil ; tribes of the Amazon ; tribes, some of Carib race, between the Amazons and north shores of South America, then comprising a population of probably more than 100 millions of Indians : early writers say 11 countless aborigines/'' FORMER POPULATION OP THE NEW WORLD. Red nations of the Chile . 4,000,000 north . . . 20,000,000 Patagonia . 2,000,000 Mexican . . . 20,000,000 Gruarani . 4,000,000 Central America . 10,000,000 Brazil . 4,000,000 Lucayans, principally 6,000,000 Aniazons . 5,000,000 Chibcha . . . 8,000,000 Caribs . 5,000,000 Quitu-Cara . . 4,000,000 Peru . . . 8,000,000 100,000,000 * See my paper in Intellectual Observer, May 1863, " On the Ruins of Tia-Huanara," with drawing, from a photograph of the sculptured monolithic portal. 76 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT I now come to that portion of my subject as regards the pre- sent population of America, reserving for the conclusion of these observations the consideration of the people at present inhabit- ing the United States. It is very difficult indeed to ascertain the amount of population in Spanish America, for periods since the conquest, as the Spanish government studiously avoided making any statistics of their colonies known to the world. I may also state that under Spanish rule, when tribute or poll- tax was exacted from the Indian, when the census was being taken, many would absent themselves. Here is the form of a receipt given to the Mexican tributary : — <c Jurisdiction of Tetepango. Fabian Sanchez, the tributary of this village of Santiaguito, has paid the royal tribute-tax, which he does as being a ' Pardo' (Indian), for the period that belongs to the end of this year of 1792. " Signed, " George Acebedo. " Signed, " Torre." At present, throughout Spanish America, to avoid being re- cruited for the army, as also on the score of taxation, not a few young men often absent themselves when the census is being taken, so that ten, and even twenty, per cent, is added to the lists sent in to the government. Perhaps Hum- boldt was one of the first to give us information on this matter, which he would procure rather as a favour from the colonial authorities. In his time the population would be classed as follows : — Whites, as old Spaniards. Whites, as Criollos,* descendants of Spanish parents. Mestizoes, f descendants of male Spaniard generally and In- dian female. Indians, reduced and romanised, also the wild. Negroes, as slaves. Mulattoes, from the white male and negress slave. * Criollo must not be confounded with Creole; the first is the offspring of Spanish parents born in the colonies ; the second applies to mixtures of White and Negro, when the white predominates ; but they are Mulattoes. Does the term Mulatto come from the Spanish word inula, or mule ? f Herrera says that the Mestizo is of good stature, but differs somewhat from the Spaniard, and that they are generally inconstant, tattlers, and gluttons, although there are many good ones. POPULATIONS OP THE NEW WORLD. 77 Zamboes,* from black male and Indian female slave. Whites, Spaniards and Oriollos. People of Colour : Mestizoes, Mulattoes, Zamboes. Negroes. Indians. Now, as the Indians and other coloured people were and are still in large numbers, the omission of these, or portions under Spanish rule, would keep the amount of population on paper down ; but their addition, under the present republican form of governments, would swell the amount almost ad libitum in some of the countries. I do not mean to say that the white and mixed population has not increased in South America since its separation from Spain, but it has not in- creased anything like that in the United States : climate, in the first place, has been against it ; and secondly, I conceive that the mixture of the three species of White, Indian, and Negro has been unsatisfactory to a healthy strong popula- tion, or even of a prolific character ; some details on these points I shall advert to as the various countries and their people are examined in relation to this question, f Mexico. Its present inhabitants are Criollos, or white de- scendants of Spanish parents ; these call themselves Mexicans ; however, the remnant of the Indian nations is the true ethnic Mexican, and is a pure species, which will be found as per- sistent as ever in its physiological character, but possibly to be destroyed at no late date by connexion with the white and black, as being of a different species, their diseases, customs, and vices. The Indian predominates in Mexico ; they are the tillers of the soil and workers of mines for the Criollos and some Mestizoes, who have power in the country. The Metis, or * Modern writers call Zamboes, Mestizoes, and Mulattoes, hybrids. Pigeon- footed people are called in Spain Zamboes. f Grliddon (p. 615), Indigenous Races, says, that out of the whole popula- tion of the world (about 1,321,000,000), some 600, more or less, available ethnological portraits are the limit of his estimate of public iconographical property bearing on the types of mankind — Europeans hardly included — now in existence. This enables ethnography at the jDresent day to boast that it possesses about half an individual per million to represent all man- kind ! whereas, out of 216 known species of monkeys, there are not a dozen Of which naturalists do not possess exact and elegant delineations ; and yet, it is pretended to give us systems vindicating the " unity of the human species." 78 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT Mestizo, is a very mixed class of the community, composed of varieties in every proportion of commixture of the white male and Indian female. The better sort is known as the JRanchero, a farmer and herdsman, mixed up in all revolutions. The inferior variety is the Lepero, the lazzaroni of Mexico. Some Negroes there are, these with the Indian female and vice versa, produce the Zambo and its mixtures. Further on, I shall refer to the question of apparently arrested prolificness, when these va- rieties breed in and in ; and to the peculiarities connected with the extent of prolificness in the mixture of the White, Indian, and Negro species, where they do not exactly breed in and in. If we make out a good case as to arrested prolificness, as re- gards the progeny of the mixture of the White and Black, White and Red, and White and East Indian peoples, and that such progeny are not so satisfactory as specimens of humanity as the progeny of white male and female, black, red, and brown, then I think there will be some ground to go upon, and entertain on physiological principles the idea of separate creations.* Taking this view in connexion with the New World, and considering the whole of the red people there as one species, we may perhaps call the Red man of the north the Mexican, the Peruvian, etc., races, these again to be subdivided into great families, nations, and tribes. Garcia Palaez states that about the middle of the eighteenth century, 4,500,000 was given for the population of Mexico, composed of Spaniardsf one-tenth, Indians and castes nine- tenths ; one-third of the latter being Indians, two-thirds Mes- tizoes and Mulattoes (there must have been Negroes and Zamboes. The following will give some idea of the division then of species and varieties : — r Spaniards and Criollos . . 450,000 Species. \ Indians 1,350,000 ' Negroes 500,000 ("Mestizoes 1,500,000 Varieties. \ Zamboes 300,000 ' Mulattoes . . . . . 600,000 4,500,000 * See a paper of mine in the Sporting Review for February 1863, on " The Llama, Alpaca, Huanacu, and Vicuna Species, and their Varieties." f Called sometimes in South America Gachupines, Chapetones, and Godos. POPULATIONS OP THE NEW WOULD. 79 I suppose, however, that the 1,350,000 Indians were those only who paid tribute, the wild and " unreduced" were not taken into the account. In 1803, 5,764,731 is given for the entire population of Mexico; in 1820, 6,209,000; in 1825, Humboldt stated it at 7,000,000; in 1842, 7,015,509; and in 1850, 7,626,813, divided as follows : — Indians 4,354,886 Whites 1,100,100 Mestizoes, Zamboes, and Mulattoes 2,165,345 Negroes 6,600 7,626,831 Here the " whites" must include Spaniards, Criollos, and the lighter varieties of Mestizoes and Mulattoes. In 1861, Mr. Lempriere stated the population as under : — Aboriginal Indians (time Mexicans) .... 3,500,000 Criollos (calling themselves Mexicans) . . . 1,200,000 Metis or Mestizoes 2,000,000 Mulattoes and Zamboes 600,000 Europeans, as Spaniards,* French, Germans, English, Italians, Yankees, etc., etc. (some of these marry Criolla females) 25,000 7,325,000 But a government report for 1861 gives 8,283,088; of these, over four millions were Indians ; the remainder, some Criollos, and many Mestizoes, call themselves " gente de razon," rea- soning people, but the Indians are denominated <e gente sin razon," or unreasoning people. The following is from M. de Larenandiere's History of Mexico, indicating the different degrees of the mixture effected between the three species of White, Indian, and the Negro : — Mestizo,1 product of Spaniard and Indian woman. Castizo? of a Mongrel3 woman and a Spaniard. Spanish (!) of a Castizo and a Spanish woman. * When the South American colonies separated from Spain, the patriots banished the greater portion of the old Spaniards from their countries, thus losing a pure race. 1 Pmre mixture. " Offspring of Mestizoes. 3 Difficult to classify. 80 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT Mulatto, of a Spaniard and a Negress. Morisco,1 of a Mulatta woman and a Spaniard. Albino/ of a Morisco and a Spanish woman. Tomatras3 of an Albino and a Spanish woman. Tentinelairef of a Tomatras and a Spanish woman. Lobo,5 of an Indian woman and a Negro. Caribujo,6 of an Indian woman and a Lobo. Barsino, of a Coyote7 and an Indian woman. G-rifo,8 of a Negress and a Lobo. Oanisa, of a Mongrel woman and an Indian. Albarazado, of a Coyote and an Indian woman. Mechino, of a Lobo and a Coyote. It was stated lately in the Spanish Cortes by Senor Pacheco, that there were only 8,000 of the Spanish race (Criollos) in Mexico, the rest of the people were mixed breeds, or hybrids, there were, however, many Indians of pure American blood ; still, he looked upon the present Mexican population as doomed to destruction. Don Lucas Alaman, a Mexican Criollo, and a Minister of State, long since said that the mixed breeds in Mexico would soon die out. Upon this sort of showing, should the different species be mixed, in the end, humanity would be destroyed. The present military promenade and occupation of Mexico by the French, and the probable advent of large numbers of Germans, with an Austrian Prince as Emperor, will do much good to Mexico in every way, for such will lead to some really settled and strong government. The yellow fever, and the worst form of it — the vomito jprieto, black vomit — is a scourge confined to the coasts of this country, carrying off, under ordinary circumstances, about 3,000 persons annually. Humboldt, in 1 803, gave for the population of the city of Mexico, — Whites, Spaniards . 2,500 Whites, Criollos . . 65,000 Indians .... 33,000 Mestizoes . . . 26,000 Mulattoes . . . 10,000 137,000 1 Is a Mulatto. 2 As partaking of white Mulatto variety. 3 A step backward. 4 Mulatto variety. 5 Wolf or Zanibo. 6 Variety of Zarnbo. 7 Coyote is from the Mexican word for wolf, probably a variety of Zanibo. 8 Variety of Zanibo. [The notes by W. B.] POPULATIONS OP THE NEW WORLD. 81 In 1856, the city of Mexico may have contained 185,000 souls ; it was observed that the Mulatto had nearly disap- peared, and that very few Negroes were to be met with ; and that this was owing in a great measure to the rarefied state of the air of the elevated table-lands of Mexico, where there was but little perspiration, consequently unsuited to the Negro. Dr. Nott says, like the Quadrumana of the tropics, the Negro is killed by cold, and is peculiarly liable to consumption out of the tropics. It has been stated that in the iierra fria and the tierra caliente there is a preponderance of males, but in the templada, or temperate, females are in excess. With the change from the Spanish to republican rule, freedom was offered to the Negro slave in the earlier part of the War of Independence, consequent on his entry into the patriot army, when many would be killed. Slavery has been abolished throughout Spanish South America ; but as the Negro has now no one to take care of him, his free position is not in his favour, even as regards himself. I may here mention, that it was no uncommon occurrence when the mines of Potosi and others in that very elevated region of Upper Peru (from 12,000 to 14,000 feet above the sea), were worked by the European Spaniards, to have their wives conveyed to the coast during the latter months of preg- nancy, and they remained there some time after giving birth ; for it was found that this removal was almost necessary for satisfactory parturition. Central America contains the Republics of Guatemala, Costa Pica (anciently Chuichire), San Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua, British Honduras, and Mosquitia. About 1753, it is reported, there were 93,000 Indians paying tribute in Gua- temala, but with their families making 1,000,000; in 1794, 93,800, exclusive of Caciques and Indian nobles living in 959 settlements, this last number multiplied by five would give 1,000,000 Indians for the kingdom of Guatemala. At the end of the seventeenth century, Garcia Palaez says, the entire population of the provinces of Nicaragua was 131,932; Comayagua, 88,143; Guatemala, 539,765; Chiapa, 62,258; total, 822,098, composed of Spaniards, Criollos, Indians, Mu- G 82 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT lattoes, Zamboes ; the Negro slaves are not mentioned. Juarros states that, in 1783, the population stood as fol- lows : — Guatemala had Independent Indians* . 543,985 Spaniards 12,355 Mulattoes 115,298 Nicaragua and Costa Rica, Spaniards . 10,000 Mestizoes and Mulattoes 55,534 Honduras had Spaniards 7,055 Blacks and Mulattoes . 35,556 Chiapa „ Spaniards 4,741 Mestizoes and Mulattoes 26,567 Or, Indians, 543,985; Spaniards, 34,151; Mestizoes and Mu- lattoes, 284,955 : total, 863,091. In 1837, the Republic of Guatemala was said to have of Spaniards, or rather Criollos, 89,979; Ladinos, or Mestizoes, 619,167; Indians, 681,367: total, 1,390,513. Squier, in 1858, gave for the entire population of Guatemala, 850,000 ; San Salvador, 433,000. Nicaragua, Whites, 30,000; Negroes, 18,000; Indians, 252,000: total, 300,000. Costa Eica, 135,000. In all, 1,718,000. For 1862, the following is the best I can make out for the rather quarrelsome populations of Central America : — 1. Guatemala. Whites, principally Criollos People of colour, as Mestizoes, Mulat- toes, and Zamboes Negroes . Indians . . . . 2. Honduras . 3. Balize, or British Honduras 4. San Salvador 5. Nicaragua 6. Costa Eica 7. Moscpiitia 190,000 320,000 10,000 965,000 1,495,000 380,000 20,000 60,000 400,000 215,000 50,300 Total Population of Central America 2,225,000 * Cage, in 1771, wrote, " However oppressed the natives of Guatemala are by the Spaniards, they increase so rapidly that the latter begin to fear them. POPULATIONS OF THE NEW WORLD. 83 The lower and hotter lands of Central America, when com- pared with much of Mexico, are more congenial to the Negro, Mulatto, and Zambo. Squier says, " All observers agree that the Whites decrease in Central America, not relatively, but absolutely ; whilst the pure Indians increase, and the cross- breeds, the Ladinos (Mestizoes), gradually approach the Indian type. Four-fifths of the population are employed in agriculture, the remainder in commerce, mines, and manufactures. Nica- ragua claimed at one time Mosquitia, which view was rejected by England, and at the request of the chief of Mosquitia, ac- knowledged him as king about 1856. Here Indian blood pre- dominates ; but with the refuge of runaway Negroes many Zamboes have been produced, and with the visits of the Whites, Mestizoes and Mulattoes have appeared. Scherzer gave, for 1857, for Nicaragua 10,000 Whites (say Criollos), 15,000 Negroes (Mulattoes and Zamboes), 80,000 Indians, and 145,000 Mestizoes. Capt. Pirn, R.N., in his Gate of the Pacific, gives as follows, in 1863, for the popula- tion of Central America : — 1. Guatemala (very few Whites, few Negroes, Indians two-thirds) ...... 800,000 2. Honduras and Bay of Islands (many Whites, some of Carib blood) ...... 350,000 3. British Honduras (principally coloured people) . 20,000 4. San Salvador ...... 290,000 5. Nicaragua (one-half Indians, the other half mixed breeds, very few Whites) .... 300,000 6. Costa Eica ...... 135,000 7. Mosquitia (very few Whites, Indians, 20,000, Caribs, Negroes, Mulattoes, and Zamboes) . . . 40,000 1,935,000 New Granada, or Granadian Confederation. At the period of the conquest there was, in all probability, an Indian population of eight to nine millions. In 1 860, after examin- ing the best sources, I gave the following in my work on South American Antiquities, Ethnology, etc. (Triibner and Co., London) : — g 2 84 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT Whites or Criollos ...... 450,000 Quadroons and Mestizoes, called Whites, and by their own writers, " intelligent and active" . . . 1,029,000 Mulattoes and Zamboes, " strong, brave, and intelligent" 383,000 Negroes, " patient, distrustful, voluptuous" .. . 80,000 Indians, Christianised . . . 310,000 Indians (wild) who are "patient, suspicious, frugal" 120,000 421,000 2,373,000 I may here mention that I do not consider either sex of the In- dian to be of amorous nature. Their families are not large; but this may be caused in some measure by the female's want of care and comfort. Lord Kaimes, about a hundred years since, wrote: " The frigidity of the North Americans, men and women, differing in that particular from all other savages, is to me evidence of a separate race" (Types, p. 297). Mr. Yigne, in his Travels in South America, 1863, ii, p. 172, when speaking of the Indian of Riobamba in Ecuador, states, that he does not always cohabit with his wife, but at intervals they remain together for four or five days, retiring to a temporary hut. It is said that catamenia appears at eighteen to twenty, ceas- ing at forty, in the females of the North Americans.* With regard to the Negro species, it has here been called " volup- tuous" ; but libidinous is a better word to express its sexual desires. This brings me to an examination of a portion of Don Jose M. Samper's "Reflections on the Revolutions and Social Condition of Spanish America" (in Spanish), published in the Ambos Mundos periodical, in London, in 1861-2, my own remarks being in parenthesis. Samper commences by stating that the object of the Conquistadores was an armed speculation ; they destroyed the greater number of the natives, and brutalised the remainder, f (I will except a few nations, however, taking the Araucafios of Chile, perhaps, even at the present time, as the most indomitable. Ercilla, the Spanish epic poet, in his * Waitz, at p. 153 of his Anthropology of Primitive Peoples, has this pas- sage, " The scanty prolificacy of the native women (of America) has also been mentioned as a principal cause of the decay of the race, and this phe- nomenon has been attributed to an original defect of organisation, or some mysterious cause." With polygenistic views, I should not call this a " de- fect," but in conformity to their own peculiar organisation. f Shiploads of Indians were sent to Spain, as slaves, as early as 1495. POPULATIONS OP THE NEW WORLD. 85 Araucana, poetically describes the physical characters of his Indian enemy, Lautaro, at the period when the Spaniards first entered Chile. After the conquest and great butcheries of the Indians, came the introduction of Negro slaves from Africa,* then followed the rule of the Jesuits, the Inquisition, and the general des- potic laws of Spain. Spain at the time of the conquest was warlike and fanatical, and could not sympathise or understand the civilisations of Mexico, Bogota, or Peru, so she destroyed them. The Spaniard was a brutal fighter, not a colonist (Pi- zarro himself may be taken as a good illustration of the for- mer.) Good laws were sometimes issued from Spain ; but on their reception by the colonial authorities, the general reply was, " we obey, but do not comply." Those of the early Conquistadores, who were not killed or died in America, returned to the mother country, often leaving children (Mestizoes) by Indian mothers. Then came the black African slave of both sexes. Whites, Indians, and Negroes have mixed, producing endless varieties. (I shall have again to refer to what has for a long time appeared to me that some- thing detrimental, physically and morally, has been going on by this mixture of the three species, since about a.d. 1500, pro- ducing at times repugnant varieties among the Zamboes, and especially from the Indian and negress. The in and in breed- ing of the Mulatto variety seems soon to approach sterility. Nott, in Indigenous Races, says, — " In the ultra-tropical parts of America, as well as in its southern or tropical states, Mulat- toes produced by intercourse between exotic Europeans of the white race, with equally exotic African females of the black, die out, unless recrossed by one or other of the parental stocks, in three or four generations." This looks like a general rule in connexion with the several species. Had the white man and Indian female only mixed, a better variety — the Mestizo — would have been the result ; but even here it may be a ques- tion how long prolific character would have been persistent in * About 1454, the Portuguese gave a horse for ten Negroes to the Arab-- who made war to obtain them. 86 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT the variety. There is reason to believe that the difficulty in rearing Mestizo (and even Criollo) children, in many portions of the New World, may be one cause of the unfavourable in- crease of population ; also, that unprolific varieties are pro- duced, and not prolific races.) Samper continues that, before the conquest, the inhabitants of America consisted of races, and innumerable varieties as regards colour, the red, reddish, bronzed, copper-colour, brown, nearly black (not the negro- black), yellow, and some " blanquecinos," or whitish (not the European white*) . It is also observed by Samper, that the Indian of the Llanos, in deep tropical valleys and on the coast of New Granada, is of a red colour ; on the slopes of the Cor- dilleras, copper or yellowish ; on the table-lands, " algo ate- zado," somewhat blackish. Then, as to their voice, form, height, customs, etc., they were in infinite variety. (I may here observe, that scientific examinations of the above would be valuable contributions to the anthropology of the red man, and would shed much light when comparing him with other species : see what difference there is in the osteology alone of the white, red, and black species.) Under the Spaniards, to the European was allotted all the principal public employments in the colonies ; they composed the ranks of the higher clergy, merchants, landowners, and miners. The Criollos became attorneys, inferior clergy, small proprietors, artisans, and shop-keepers. The Indians tilled the land, were tributary, servants, and miners. The Negroes, Mulattoes, and Zamboes did the more heavy work. At the commencement of the War of Independence, about 1810, the three races (species) are said to have stood as follows in Colombia, then composed of Quito or Ecuador, New Gra- nada, and Venezuela. * In some works on ethnology, " White Indians" are mentioned as existing- in America. I do not believe there are any. During the former wars of the Araucanos against the Spaniards, girls and women of the latter were often captured, and had to live with the Indians. The wild Jivaros of Quito, and some few others, killed their male Spanish prisoners, but kept the females. The progeny of the Indian with a white woman would be a Mestizo, but is rather a rare variety, the Indian being repugnant to the white woman. POPULATIONS OP THE NEW WORLD. 87 Whites. Indians. Negro Slaves. Quito 157,000 393,000 8,000 New Granada 877,000 313,000 70,000 Venezuela 200,000 207,000 60,000 1,234,000 913,000 138,000 Giving, then, a population to Colombia of 2,285,000. (In 1824, I find the following* given for Colombia: — Whites (Criollos) ..... 000,000 Men of Colour (Mestizoes, Mulattoes, and Zamboes 720,000 Negroes ...... 470,000 Indians ....... 854,000 2,644,000 In regard to Venezuela in particular, this mixture of species has produced at times the most violent democracy, not liberty. True liberty belongs rather to the white races of Europe ; and imported white nationalities, say even into the United States, are difficult to settle down into seriously law-obeying people.) Samper continues. " In South America, the races of Shem, Ham, and Japhet have embraced fraternally, tending to re- constitute the unity of the human family." (I should tliink this monogenistic view of the subject must be very satisfactory to the mixed breeds.) He continues. "Admirable pheno- menon ! harmony in diversity" (?) (My experience leads me to an opposite conclusion. This democracy of the Criollos and mixed breeds has led, excepting in very few instances, to mili- tary depotism, and almost continuous anarchy in the Spanish American republics. If the mixed white races in the United States find it impossible to go on rationally with their demo- cratic notions of government, much more so is it for their brethren in Spanish America.) Samper indicates a " new race," forming in Spanish America by the union of Spaniard, English, French, German, Italian, etc., with the Spanish Cri- olla. (This race of the white species will have modern Euro- pean instincts, and will not mix, it is to be hoped, with the Indian or Negro species; and should a sufficient number of these ever exist in the Spanish American States, they will become an influential and perhaps a governing party.) Samper, and those who think with him, will not agree with my views, CO OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT viz., that the progeny proceeding from a mixture of the white, Indian, and Negro species, appear, by breeding in and in, to show signs after awhile of sterility. If the physical powers become deteriorated, the moral must follow the same course. The following are the present ethnographical zones, accord- ing to Samper, in New Granada : — 1. Criollo of Bogota . • ■ ) 2. Criollo of Antioquia ...J and of the other cities : White. 3. Pastuso Indian ) T -,- > Indigenous. 4. Indian of the East Cordillera J 5. Mulatto 6. Llanero — a Mestizo, equivalent to the G-aucho of the Pampa of Buenos Ayres and Guasso of Chile. 7. Zambo. 8. Negro. After Popayan (Payan) was conquered by the Spaniards, two hundred Jewish families, having had Romanism forced upon them in Spain, were exiled to this interior portion of South America. Here, then, we now have a Criollo population ■ — some of them probably Mestizoes — with oriental character- istics, which Samper calls a fine and interesting race, that they are clever merchants, and look sharp after the cent, per cent. The Pastuso Indian is a demi-savage, low of stature, bronzed, has a stupid look, cunning, but laborious ; at times perfidious and fanatical ; he is Romanised, and makes a good guerilla soldier. The Chibcha Indian in appearance is not unlike the Pastuso, but his morale is better; he makes a poor guerilla, but a good soldier. " It is evident," says Samper, " that the mixture of Spanish, Indian, and Negro has produced in New Granada most commendable mixed castes, independently of their defective education : this rule is applicable to all South America/' The Mestizo types of the Guache and Orejon of the table- land of Bogota are favourable specimens, as is also the Ja- panga of Popayan, the Guantero of Medellin, etc., etc. The Mulatto and Quadroon display more energy than the Mestizo ; and the Mulatto castes will be the most secure and fecund elements of civilisation in the New World (but which is not my opinion) . The Llanero is a Mestizo ; he is dark, thin, and POPULATIONS OP THE NEW WORLD. 89 bony. The Zambo, of rosewood colour, is in New Granada principally employed as a boatman, and is a degraded and ugly variety.* He is seen in all his characteristics when poling the champan, or flat boat, on the rivers, — in his obscene dances, — and in his hut, reposing, nearly naked, in supreme indolence. Samper concludes : " Such are the most notable types of His- pano-American society, resulting from the mixture of Whites, Indians, and Negroes, each appearing necessary to each other." (?) Samper, in the appendix to the Refleciones , observes, " it is generally stated that, at the period of the conquest of New Granada, there were from 7,000,000 to 9,000,000 Indians." There were, in 1860, only 500,000 of pure blood, and still wild, and 500,000 mixed with white and negro blood. In 1 809, just before the War of Independence, the population may be placed as follows, excepting the wild Indians : — "Whites (Spaniards and Criollos) and white Mestizoes 877,000 Indians (pure) ...... 313,000 Mestizoes (dark) including Mulattoes and Zamboes . 140,000 Negro slaves ...... 78,000 1,400,000 Fifteen years of war carried off more than 200,000 males, and in 1819 a great number of Spaniards left the country, so that in 1825, about the end of the war, the census gave for the population 1,228,259, shewing a diminution of 171,741 in fifteen years. In 1835, the census gave 1,686,038, but it was supposed that 1,900,000 was nearer the mark. For 1860 Samper gives as follows : — Whites and Mestizo Whites . . . 1,537,000 Indians (some) with little white blood . . 600,000 Mestizoes (Mulattoes and Zamboes) . . 473,000 Negroes (free) ..... 90,000 2,700,000 Wild Indians 270,000 2,970,000 Samper says, " This shows that the population of New Gra- nada increased 20 per cent, in the first twenty-five years ; and * Emile Souvestre, in his Le Monde tel qu'il sera, says, " La fraternite gcnerale amene la laideur universelle." 90 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT that in the second period of twenty-five years (from 1835 to 1860) the population had increased 60 per cent., and this with- out foreign immigration." (?) Also, that in the same period of fifty years, the Whites have increased .... 600,000 Indians, more or less pure .... 287,000 Mestizoes and Mulattoes of various sorts . . 333,000 Negroes ...... 20,000 At present the distribution of the population of New Granada is as under : — On the table-lands ..... 900,000 On the slopes of the Cordilleras . . . 650,000 In the tropical valleys and coasts . . . 1,150,000 2,700,000 In speaking of the very great differences of elevation above the sea, and their inhabitants in New Granada, Samper alludes to those formidable breaks in the land such as that through which falls the cataract of Tequendama, calling it a sort of climato- logical and ethnological scale, — indeed, a species of ethnometer, — affording a measure of differences in vegetation, as well as that of the several varieties of the human race, their manners, customs, and occupation in relation to the peculiar topography of country, and that in a very short period of time one may ascend from the tropical regions to the temperature of the polar. Venezuela. I am assured (1863) by a Venezuelan gentleman that the population of his country is as follows : — Whites, as Criollos, and some few foreigners . 400,000 Zamboes very many, few Mestizoes, Negroes, and Mulattoes— the Zamboes in particular very tur- bulent ...... 900,000 Indians, Ouaranos, Caribs, and Groijiros . . 40,000 Immigrants from the Canary Islands . . 40,000 1,380,000 Some Coolies have been imported ; but the Canary islander is better suited to the climate of Venezuela as a labourer, me- chanic, etc., and they become rich. Spain of late years has prohibited emigration from the Canary Islands. Statistics as to the number of Coolies and Chinese imported, the percentage of deaths among them, and the number who have returned to POPULATIONS OF THE NEW WORLD. 91 their respective countries, would, I think, show that the change of climate, and the work imposed on them in those portions of the New World they have been taken to, has not been at all favourable to them. Ecuador. A late census is said to have given — . 500,000 8,000 Whites or Criollos . . 200,000 Indians Mulattoes . 50,000 Negroes Mestizoes . 450,000 Zamboes . 50,000 1,258,000 The hot and humid coast is inhabited by Negroes, Mulattoes, and Zamboes ; the healthy table-lands by the Criollo, Mestizo, and Romanised Indian; the eastern portion down to and on the Amazons, by wild aborigines. Peru. In 1795, the population of the country, including Upper Peru — now Bolivia — was supposed to be — Whites, Spaniards, and Criollos .... People of Colour — Mestizoes, Mulattoes, and Zamboes Indians ....... Negroes (then slaves) ..... 136,311 285,841 608,911* 40,336 1,071,399 In 1825, 1,900,000 was given by the authorities for Peru and Bolivia. Dr. Hamilton, who resided many years in Peru and Bolivia, has stated that in 1840 there were not 3,000,000 in both countries ; that the average number of deaths annually in Peru was much greater than in the temperate climes of Europe. One out of seventeen children died in Lima, the capital ; this was three times more than that of London. In 1834, in a parish in South Peru, comparatively healthy, with a population of 6,000 souls, — Births f Criollos 62 1 other classes 293 355 -r. , , f Adults Deaths Infants 199) 124/ 323 Marriages, 42. All who died under seven years were classed as infants j but there was reason to believe that the foregoing report did not include the whole number of infants buried, for the rate of infantile mortality among the lower classes in Peru is very great. In 1860, the stated population of Peru was — * Barry, in Noticias Secretas, says, 600,000; and that at the time of the conquest there were five to six millions. 92 OBSEKVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PEESENT Whites (Criollos) ..... 240,000 Mestizoes. Mulattoes, and Zaniboes . . 350,000 Indians (trne Peruvians) .... 1,600,000 Negroes ...... 40,000 2,230,000 Paz. Soldan, in his Geografia del Peru, 1862, gives, including, I suppose, the Indian population of Loreto, 2,300,000. There is now a fair sprinkling of English, French, German, Italian, and Spaniards in the country, as merchants, miners, shop- keepers and artisans; some of these marry Criolla females. Chinese have been regularly imported for years past as labourers for the Guano Islands, and the various estates on the coast. Polynesians, some 2,000 in number, were kidnapped and taken to Peru. Easter Island, in 27° S., 109° W., was swept of its inhabitants, and a depot made of that island., they were denominated " colonos," or colonists ; however, the French authorities in Polynesia soon put a stop to this nefarious proceeding, and caused the Peruvian government to redeem those who had been sold ; and three hundred and eighteen were sent back to the islands in August of this year, but very many died of small-pox. It was found that these Polynesians, known as Kanakas, did not know how to work, nor would they be taught ; they also felt severely the change of climate and food, many dying of dysentery, others running away from their masters, or rather purchasers.* It will be observed, that the greater number of people in Peru, as to species, is Indian ; then come the Criollos or White, and Negroes; these give rise to endless varieties in colour, and other characteristics, as seen in the Mestizoes or Cholos, Mu- lattoes, and Zamboes. In Lima, more than twenty-five dis- tinct varieties are well known and distinctly named. The Negros have been emancipated for some years ; the Indians have been relieved from their tribute. Such were politic acts for military presidents like Castilla ; for from these two sources soldiers were obtained in large numbers for his military promenades, and for his own protection. Wh.en sla- * Mr. Latrobe stated at the reading of the paper on the "Frobisher Relics" at the Geographical Society, April 13, 1863, " that those Esquimaux who have been Christianised, and got into European habits as regarded food, did not thrive nearly so well as when under their old regime of blubber and seal oil. POPULATIONS OF THE NEW WORLD. 93 very was abolished in Peru, the owners of estates, and the govei'nnient, for the working of the guano in the Chincha Islands, procured much help from China ; but the Chinese are not a satisfactory sort of people, and are very careless of life. A small German emigration was got to Peru, in the vicinity of the Amazons, but it has dwindled away, according to late accounts from Lima. Some Spanish Basques settled lately in N. Peru, as agriculturists, had difficulties with the Criollos, a fight took place, when some were killed on either side. The best account of the population in Peru will be found in Tschudr's Travels in that country, from which I make some extracts, adding some observations to the table of castes. Possibly in no other place in the world is there so much variety of complexion and physiognomy as in Lima. From the delicately fair Criolla daughter of European parents, to the jet black Congo negro, people of every gradation of colour are seen living in intimate relation with one another. It is difficult to define the characteristics of the mixed classes, for their minds partake of the mixture of their blood. As a general rule, it may be. said, that they unite in themselves all the faults without any of the virtues of their progenitors. As men they are generally inferior to the pure races, and as members of society they are the worst sort of citizens. The white Criollos constitute less than one-third of the po- pulation of Lima, of about 100,400 souls. They are slender in figure, and of middling height. The men are feeble, and look prematurely old. They have a sort of sensual expression, effeminate, and disinclined to active exertion. Far superior to the men, both physically and intellectually, are the women. They are slender and rather tall, with elegantly formed feet. The Indians in Lima may number 5,000 ; they are active and industrious ; many of them are shopkeepers and servants ; they are reserved and suspicious ; their intellectual qualities are far beneath those of the Criollo. The Negroes (now free) in Lima form four-fifths of the po- pulation ; those brought from Africa were called Bosales, and were far better than the Negro born in the country. In phy- sical strength they were inferior to the latter, and are less lively. In Lima, and throughout Peru, the free Negroes are a 94 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT plague to society. Too indolent to support themselves by laborious industry, they readily fall into dishonest means of getting money. Almost all the robbers who infest the roads or the coast of Peru are free negroes. Dishonesty seems a part of their nature ; and moreover, all their tastes are coarse and sensual. My opinion is that the Negro, in respect to capability for mental improvement, is far behind the European. We will now consider the variegated mass of people of mixed blood who, in Lima (and all over Peru) , form a consider- able portion of the population. It is a rule, that the children bear the designation, denoting the same degree of mixed blood, whatever may respectively be the colour of the parents. The child of a Negro and a white woman is a Mulatto, the child of an Indian and white woman is a Mestizo. When a man of mixed blood marries a woman darker than himself, and his children thereby become further removed from the white tint, it is said to be un paso atras (a step backward) . The subjoined list shows the parentage of the different variety of half-castes, and also their designations (in Peru). PARENTS. White father and negro mother White father and In- dian mother Indian father and ne- gro mother White father and mu- latto mother White father and mes- tizo mother White father and China mother White father and cuarterona mother White father and guin- tera mother CHILDREN. Mulatto,1 or pure mulatto ; half white, half negro. Mestizo,3 or pure mestizo; half white, half Indian. Chino,3 or pure zambo ; half Indian, half negro. Cuateron,4 or mulatto variety ; three- fourths white, one-fourth negro. Creole,5 or mestizo variety; three- fourths white, one -fourth Indian. Chino-blanco, or zambo-mestizo var. ; one-half white, one-fourth Indian, one-fourth negro. Quintero,6 or mulatto variety ; four- fifths white, one-fifth negro. White (?),7 or mulatto variety ; nine- ninths white, one-ninth negro. 1 Mulatto, from mula, a nude or hybrid. 2 Mestizo, from the Spanish. mezclar, to mix. a Lite the Chinese in colour. 4 Cuateron, or quadroon, as being the fourth remove from the negro. 5 In the West Indies the Creole is a mulatto : Criolla in Spanish meant the offspring of Spanish parents in the colonies. fi As being a fifth remove from the negro. 7 " White" here is still negro blood. POPULATIONS OP THE NEW WORLD. 95 PAEENTS. Negrofather andln diet n mother Negro father and mu- latto mother Negro father and mes- tizo mother Negrofather and China mother Negrofather and zambo mother Negro father an d gy. in - tera mother Indian father and mu- latto mother Indian father and mes- tizo mother Indian father and chino mother Indian father and zam- ho mother Indian father and chi- no-chola mother Indian father and quin- ter 'a mother Mulatto father and zam- bo mother Mulatto father and mes- tizo mother Mulatto father and chi- no mother CHILDREN. Zanibo,8 or pure zambo ; half negro, half Indian. Zanibo-negro, or zambo with white ; three - fourths negro, one-fourth white. Mulatto-oscuro, or zambo with white and Indian ; half negro, one-fourth Indian, one-fourth white. Zambo-chino, or zambo variety; three- fourths negro, one-fourth Indian. Zambo-negro, or zambo variety, quite black ; nine-ninths negro, one-ninth Indian. Mulatto-dark, or mulatto variety; four-fifths negro, one-fifth white. Chino-oscuro, or zambo and white var.; half Indian, one-fourth negro, and one-fourth white. Mestizo-claro, or mestizo variety ; said to be often beautiful ; three-fourths Indian, one-fourth white. Chino-cholo,9 or zambo variety ; two- thirds Indian, one-third negro. Zambo-claro, or zambo variety ; three- fourths Indian, one-fourth negro. Indian with frizzly hair, or zambo var. ; four-fifths Indian, one-fifth negro. Mestizo, rather brown, or zambo var. with white ; three-fifths Indian, one-fifth negro, and one-fifth white. Zambo (a miserable race), or zambo variety, with some white ; three- fifths negro, one-fifth Indian, one- fifth white. Chino-claro, or zambo variety, with some white ; two-fifths white, one- fifth negro, one-fifth Indian. Chino-dark, or zambo variety, with some white ; two-fifths negro, two- fifths Indian, one-fifth white. 8 Zambo, looks like an African word. In Spain pigeon-feet ed people are called " Zambos." 9 Cholo is another name for very Indian Mestizoes. The two first items in this table are from Tschudi's Travels in Peru ; I have added the t-sro last and the notes. 96 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT Besides the half-castes here enumerated, there are many others not distinguished by particular names, as they do not in colour materially differ from those specified. Some of the Mulatto females have complexions brilliantly fair, but they bear the unmistakable stamp of descent in the short woolly hair. Despite the republican constitution, there prevails through- out Peru a strong pride of caste, which shows itself at every opportunity. By all varieties the white skin is envied. The Indian looks with abhorrence on the Negro ; the latter, with scorn on the Indian. The Mulatto fancies himself next to the European, and thinks that the little tinge of black in his skin does not justify his being ranked lower than the Mestizo, who, after all, is only an " Indio-bruto ;" so called by the white Limeilos. The Zambo laughs at them all, and says, "if he himself is not worth much, yet he is better than his parents." In short, each variety finds a reason for thinking itself better than another. The Zamboes are the most miserable class of half-castes. With them every vice seems to have attained its utmost degree of development ; not one in a thousand is a useful member of society. Four-fifths of the criminals in the city gaol of Lima are Zamboes. In moral nature they are below the Negro. The hair is very little longer than that of the Negro, and they have little beard. The Chinos are but little superior to the Zamboes, and some are hideously ugly. The Cuarterones and Quinterones, half-castes of fairer complexion especially, ap- proximate to the whites, among whom they almost rank themselves. It was hoped that the Geografia del Peru, by Paz. Soldan, of 1862, would have given some more information on the subject of population ; however, this is all he says : — " The greater number of the people are indigenous, and preserve their lan- guage and customs. Another portion are the descendants of Spaniards ; others, mixed more or less with Indians and Africans, giving rise to types of various colours and appear- ance, as the Mestizo or Cholo, offspring of white and Indian; the Mulatto, of white and African ; from these come the terce- rone, quateron, pardos, chino-colos, etc., born of mixed blood, POPULATIONS OP THE NEW WORLD. 97 according as any race (species or variety) may predominate. We cannot say how many there are of each race, because we have no accurate details.-" This view of the case will please the soi-disant " Hombres Blancos" of Spanish America. Many years since, being in a town in Southern Peru, at a tertulia, or evening party, politics were debated in loud terms in a circle composed entirely of mixed breeds ; the principal question related to the Tirania of the then local authorities, who were looked upon as nearly Indians. My friends said, " Shall we who are Hombres blancos — white men — tolerate their Urania, they who are Indians ? no, never." I had the temerity to ask, " Which white men V They replied, Nosotros, Hombres blancos — we, the white men ! Bolivia. Dalence, a government officer, gave, for about 1855,— " Whites and others" (these I conceive to have been Cri- ollos, romanised Indians, and Mestizoes; very little, indeed, of the Negro element) .... 1,373,000 Wild Indians ...... 760,000 2,133,000 These " Whites and others" are very turbulent ; and General Belzu told me, in 1860, that during his seven years of Presidency (or rather his mad dictatorship) he had quelled thirty revolu- tions. In 1858, the Republic of Mexico had been in existence thirty-eight years, and had had fifty-six violent changes of government. Chile. In 1780, the Spanish government gave — Whites, as Spaniards, and Criollos, 80,000 ; People of Colour unknown, as Indians, Negroes, Mestizoes and Zamboes. In 1858-60, the census gave — Chilenos (under Spanish rule would have been Spa- niards and Criollos. Mestizoes, as Guassos; very- few Negroes and Mulattoes) . . . 1,439,120 Foreigners ...... 19,669 Negroes ...... 31 Indians in the south, as Araucaiios . . . 20,000 1,478,810 H 98 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT This large number of foreigners, 19,669,* is mainly composed of English and Germans, including a German colony in the south. The climate of Chile suits them ; many have married Chilenas and settled in the country as merchants, miners, artisans, etc. Climate will have very much to do with the settlement of foreigners in the Spanish American Republics, the great majority of the States are too tropical for Europeans. Up to December 1862, the census gave for Chile — Males ....... 822,737 Females ...... 826,894 1,646,894 It was stated that since the last year there had been an increase of population of 20,605. General Observations on Chile in 1862. — If we take into consideration the vast extent of territory in which the Spanish, language is spoken, viz., from the south frontier of the United States to near Cape Horn, we see with but few exceptions disorder, anarchy, violence, miserable ambitions, nations who are unhinging and destroying themselves, and asking how a proper population is to be replaced, until we arrive in Chile, where we find a South American people in a progressive state. Is it that the climate there is so favourable to human life com- pared to the greater portion of Spanish America, which is un- healthy ? Chile has the climate of Italy ; it is bounded on the north by the desert of Atacama, on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the east by the Andes, and on the south by Cape Horn. It is a very rich mining and agricultural country. Here the Spaniards drove those Indians they could not slaughter into their fastnesses, where they remain, some 20,000, to this day, and formed but few alliances with the female Indian, as in other parts of Spanish America, producing a caste (the Mes- tizo) which does not quietly settle down. Then Chile was not a tropical land ; thus it did not require those large importations of negro slaves : in a word, it is almost of pure Spanish de- scent. Then, since its separation from Spain, very many Eu- * Valparaiso, the principal port, contained in 1863 70,000 to 80,000 souls, some 16,000 being foreigners. POPULATIONS OP THE NEW WOELD. 99 ropeans have married Chilenas, and their progeny is of a satisfactory character, there being no Indian or Negro blood there. The immense advantage of a country possessing a pure race can only be understood by those who have resided for a time in countries populated by mixed-breeds. Thus, while the greater portion of Spanish America, where there is a large body of mixed-breeds, is in a state of anarchy, Chile is tranquil and pacific, increasing its commerce, its riches, and its population; and if now and then it experiences one of those periods of political excitability characteristic of the Spanish race, the attack is but of short duration, and the pro- gressive march of the nation goes on ; whilst the other repub- lics are mainly military oligarchies, having no other element of power but the bayonet. Then, for years past, the presidents of Chile have been civilians. Let us see what some of the results have been. Wealth and population are increasing rapidly. In the last thirty years, landed property has risen tenfold ; its ports are scenes of the greatest activity ; mining and agriculture are most prosperous ; the public treasury has always a surplus ; public works of great magnitude are continually going on ; a railway, starting from the capital in a south direction, is already open for many miles, and contracts are now making to extend it very considerably ; the railway, with serious cuttings and tunnels, from the capital to Valparaiso, some 150 miles, is finished; the railways at Copiapo pay dividends of 20 per cent. ; a railway is construct- ing at Coquimbo : these are the great industrial operations. A cathedral is building in the capital which, when completed, will be one of the finest structures in South America ; for from Italy are coming seventy large marble pillars. Santiago may be called a city of palaces. Education is extending, particu- larly among the poorer classes. The government has caused to be formed an acclimatisation garden for foreign plants and trees, to be given out to those who may require them, and is most anxious to invite European immigration. In the month of January 1863 (summer), there had been some extra mortality in Santiago the capital (2,067 feet above the level of the sea), and out of a population of 100,000 souls, h 2 100 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT 198 men, 168 women, and 669 children had died, and this was when niany had left the city for the country. Epidemics, some- times of a severe character, occur in South America; and if full credit can be given to old writers, there have been very fatal ones, attacking both Spaniards and Indians ; these have been called "pestes." The local diseases in the more tropical portions are agues, bilious and yellow fevers, at times of a bad character. The imported diseases are principally the measles, whooping- cough, and small-pox,* which fall heavily on the Indian popu- lation. Much has been written on the subject of syphilis having been brought originally from America. I believe that those Indians only who have been in contact with Europeans have contracted it from them, and that those Indians who live in their wilds are entirely free from any such disease. I fear that this scourge, introduced by Europeans, is thinning off the people of Polynesia; and from my own explorations among the Indians of Tierra del Fuego, the disease has been commu- nicated by sealers and whalers, who have been known to take away the squaws for a time. The Argentine Republic, or La Plata, is composed of thir- teen confederated provinces. When this country was first dis- covered by Europeans, the district of Buenos Ayres was occu- pied by the Querandis, from whom descend the Pampa Indians ; the mouth of the Parana and its islands were inhabited by the Gruaranis. On the northern side of the Plata were the ferocious Charruas ; and on the islands in the Uruguay, the inoffensive Chavas. In 1536, the Indians made peace with the Spaniards ; one clause of the treaty was that Indian women should be given to the intruders ; Ayolas, the general, had seven, each soldier two, and this was the origin of the Mestizo variety in this country. In 1558, under the government of Irala, as the Spaniards had taken no females with them, some married In- dian women, others had concubines ; Irala himself had children, so say historians, by seven sisters ! In 1542, the Lenguas, who were a fine tribe, and their women beautiful, had to give up many of them to make peace with the Spaniards. * About 1797, it was stated, that nine-tenths of the North American In- dians were carried off by small-pox, and many killed themselves from grief at being disfigured. — Waitz, p. 145. POPULATIONS OF THE NEW WOELD. 101 In 1 744, the first census gave for the city of Buenos Ayres 11,200 souls, and the surrounding country to the river San Borondan in the south, 6,044. In 1770, in the province of Buenos Ayres there were 22,007 souls, composed of 3,639 white men (Spaniards, 1,398, foreigners, 456, and Criollos, 1,785); white women, 4,508 ; children, 3,985; army, 4,770; clergy, 942; and slaves (probably Negroes), 4,161. In 1778, the city and surrounding country had 37,679; Cordova, 38,570; Indians about Cordova, 5,482; Paraguay, 93,972. In this year 700,000 to 800,000 hides were exported. From 1792 to 1796, in 268 vessels were shipped 3,790,585 hides of cattle, and 78,800 of horses. In 1806, the population of the city of Buenos Ayres was 60,000. In 1812, Negro slavery was abolished ; numbers were turned into patriot soldiers, fought hard, and very many fell. Sir W. Parish gives for 1837-47, for the Confederated Provinces, 820,000; Paraguay in 1840, 220,000; the Banda Oriental, 80,000; for the Independent tribes in the Gran Chaco, Pampas, and Patagonia, 50,000 to 100,000. In 1844, it was stated that the population of the city of Buenos Ayres had more than doubled in twenty-five years, and that the number of inhabitants in the city was 110,000. In 1863, 150,000. For 1824 we have the following division of the population, according to Rugendas ; — Whites, principally Criollos . . . 475,000 Men of colour (Mestizoes, Mulattoes, and Zamboes) 305,000 Negroes (free) ..... 70,000 Indians ...... 1,150,000 2,000,000 This must .have included Uruguay and part of Paraguay, or there must be an error as to the amount of Indian population. The present population are principally white ; then follow the Mestizoes, including the Gaucho, who lives almost on horse- back, and Indians ; some of whom are romanised, others wild. The Negro element is dying out ; for the white man can work in this climate, and become a farmer, and . herdsman of cattle, horses, and sheep, which are most profitable occupations. 102 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT In 1863; I make the population to stand as under : — Argentines (as Whites, Mestizoes, and Christian- ised Indians) ; also a great number of foreigners, viz., English, French, Germans, Italians and Spaniards, as cattle-farmers, merchants, trades- men, and shopkeepers, say 20,000 to 30,000 . 1,750,000 Wild Indians ...... 50,000 1,800,000 Paraguay. Dean Funes, some years since, wrote thus of the mixture of species in this country 1. White European woman, or a Criolla, and Indian male, the produce is a Mestizo. The males of this mixture have a beard, although the father had none. 2. White woman and Mestizo husband produce the Quarter- ona or Quadroon. 3. White woman and male Quadroon produce the Octaroon. 4. White woman and Octaroon produce the Puchuela, and is not to be distinguished from the European. For the present population 1,337,431 is given. In some of the towns and their vicinity, live the Whites and a large number of Mestizoes ; but the great body of the people are Guarani Indians. There are no Negroes, consequently no Mulattoes orZamboes. In the Anthropological Review for August 1863, it is stated, that a German colony was founded in Para- guay in 1535, by the soldiers of Charles V, who since that time had received no addition of a German element. These Ger- mans are to this day perfectly like the Germans of Europe. Waitz, writing of Paraguay in 1835, observes, that Indian women married to Europeans breed better than with men of their own stock, though they suffer more during delivery. Their being more prolific with white husbands may be owing to their improved mode of life. Uruguay, or Banda Oriental. In 1826, it had only 60,000 to 70,000; in 1835, 140,000; in 1842, 240,000; in 1860, 240,965. Being a healthy country, foreigners now form a large proportion ; as French, Spanish, and Genoese. A popu- lation is now springing up, having energy and intelligence, and imbued with progressive modes of thinking. There is but very little of the Negro element ; and white men can work in POPULATIONS OP THE NEW WORLD. 103 this climate, or occupy themselves as herdsmen and sheep- farmers. Present population, 1863, 300,000. Brazil, Empire of. Rugendas gave for the population, in 1835, Whites, 843,000; Men of Colour, 628,000; Negroes, 1,987,500; Indians, 300,000: making 3,758,000. Adams, in his Statistics for 1856, gives 7,677,800, nearly one-half being Negroes, some still in slavery, and immigration of free labour encouraged (Chinese and Coolies). The whites are of Portu- guese descent ; and many foreigners, as Germans and French, form about one-sixth of the whole, the rest were Negroes, Mu- lattoes, Zamboes (called also Cabourets), and Indians. There may be some 500,000 Indians ; these are divided into Mansos (or tamed) and Tapiros (or wild), both low in the scale of hu- manity. In 1862, the population was about 8,000,000. Spix and Martius give an account of the Cafusos (query, Coafusus, or resulting from a confusion), so called by Portu- guese, they are a variety springing from the Brazilian Indian and the runaway Negro (Maroons). Many live in the solitary plains bounded by the forests of Tarama; they are Zamboes, but have been erroneously called Mestizoes. I am informed that there are German colonists amounting to over 10,000, and this number appears to alarm the government. The Guayanas (from the Guayanoes Indians). In 1835, Rugendas gave for the whole population — Whites, 3,421 ; Men of colour, 3,220 ; Negroes, 109,349 ; Indians, unknown, but as he gives 228,572 as the total, 112,931 might be for abo- riginals. British Guayana is inhabited principally by people of colour. There are the six tribes of Indians who inhabit the adjacent country; some of them work for the planters. Coolies from the East Indies are imported as labourers: 163,000. Dutch Guayana is mainly populated by blacks. In the hilly parts dwell the Maroons, or runaway negroes. Jews are numerous, and in the interior at Savanna it is entirely inhabited by them; they cultivate their own plantations. In 1835, Whites, 8,525 (including 3,000 Jews) ; Negroes, 72,000 ; In- dians, 6,200 ; Men of colour (Mulattoes and Zamboes), say 20,000; so without the mixed-breeds there were 106,725. Adams only gives 60,000 in 1862. French Guayana. — Rugen- 104 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT das gives for 1835, — Whites, 1,020 ; Men of colour (Mulattoes and Zainboes), 1,980; Negroes, 13,200; Indians, 10,000: in all, 26,500. In the unwholesome swamps here it is reported that French political and other offenders perish in numbers. Total for the Guayanas, 276,000. West Indies. The aboriginal Lucayans and Caribs have entirely disappeared. Negroes (some still in slavery in the Spanish islands) constitute three-fourths of the coloured popu- lation, say of 4,000,000, the other fourth takes in every shade of Mulatto. The English, Spanish, Danish, French, and Dutch, and their descendants constitute the minority of white popu- lation. Humboldt says that slavery would have diminished since 1820 with great rapidity but for the fraudulent continu- ance of the slave trade. He says, in his time there were 2,400,000 Negroes and Mulattoes, and that from 1670 to 1825 nearly 5,000,000 of African Negroes had been imported. Cuba, in 1792, had 171,620 inhabitants; in 1859, 1,179,023. From 1849 to 1857, or eight years, there had been an increase of 48,562 slaves upon a total population of slaves of 323,896 ; and Lord Russell, who is doubtless kept well informed on this matter, tells us, that the " abominable traffic" introduces about 40,000 annually. In 1860-61, the following was given for the population of the sugar and tobacco-producing county of Cuba : — Whites ...... 550,000 Coloured (free) ..... 180,000 Slaves,* Negroes, and Mulattoes . . 400,000 Asiatics (Chinese and Coolies) . . . 38,000 1,130,000 The slaves were valued at £3,000,000. When Columbus discovered Cuba it contained a somewhat settled people, timid, and simple, of the colour of the Canary islanders, the women whiter. These lived in fear of the Caribs, from whom they differed materially. At Santo Domingo Co- lumbus was struck with what he called the whiteness of the skin, * Said, by American writers, to be very hard worked in Cuba, whilst in the Southern States of America they are well treated and humanised. POPULATIONS OP THE NEW WOELD. 105 as well as their culture and inoffensive habits ; circumstances which strongly contrasted with the reddish olive hue and ferocity of the Caribs of other islands and continent. The original population of Cuba was about a million; but in 1517 there were only 14,000. In 1553, Gomara tells us that there was not one* pure Indian man on the island ; however, the Spaniards had detained many of the Indian women. In Hayti there was another million. Sixty years after its discovery there were 15,000; but in 1729 the aborigines were extinct, some Mes- tizoes remaining. The Spaniards now imported the African negro, and from the female of that species has resulted the Mulatto variety. In 1859, Hayti had a population of 500,000, all Blacks. Santo Domingo 200,000, mainly Mulattoes, and a few Whites. The Caribs were expelled, particularly from the island of St. Vincent in 1 796, at the cost of a million sterling, by the English settlers, to the island of Eoatan, formerly Guayania. Already, from 1675, the shipwreck of a Guinea slaver near St. Vincent had infused so much exotic negro blood with the aborigines as to have again divided them into yellow and black Caribs. Transplanted again by the Spaniards to Honduras, these Mulatto-Caribs found themselves in the midst of another population of half-breeds ; viz., the Zamboes of the Mosquito shore, formed since the seventeenth century, between survivors from the wreck of another African slaver * Manley Hopkins writes, that it is not a hundred years since Cook dis- covered the Sandwich Islands. In the past it was most populous ; at pre- sent it is in a rapidly decreasing state, and its futm'e will have to be classed with the entire native depopulation of the West Indies. When the Sandwich islanders worshipped their feathered god Kukaihnoka, and followed native customs, the islands may have had a population of 300,000 ; but with the in- troduction of the civilisation and diseases of the white man, the census of 1860 gave only 67,000 ! An American backwoodsman would call such a state of things being " improved off." At the commencement of the present year, 1863, 60,000 is given as the population of the Sandwich Islands ; such was the scarcity of labourers for the sugar plantations that parties were earnestly urging the government to import Coolies from India. Mr. Lee, in a paper read this year at the British Association " On the extinction of Races," observed, that the rapid disappearance of aboriginal tribes before the ad- vancement of civilisation (of the white species), was one of the most remark- able incidents of the age ; from America to New Zealand, from Fremantle to Honolulu, this seemed to be the result of an approximation of different races (species). In 1815, the aborigines of T'an Diemen's Land numbered 5,000; five years later, 350; in 1831, 196; in 1847, only 47, when these were removed to Flinder's Island; in 1855, but 16 remained. 106 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT and the Indians, and where also European buccaneers had not failed to bequeath white blood. Here laborious mahogany- cutters were produced; but in the ever-glades of Florida, crosses between runaway negresses and the truly barbarous Indians of that region, exhibit but incarnate, ferocious devils, hostile to civilisation. Hecent events at Panama (Voyage of the Herald, i, p. 302), confirm the deleterious consequences of such intermixtures, prognosticated years since by the naturalist Dr. Berthold Seemann. I have had somewhat to do with Zamboes, as workmen, in South America, and in any disturbance in which they took part, and when I happened to be in the vicinity, I always looked to see that my firearms were in order and handy. The drunken Indian or Negro may be managed, but a drunken Zambo is a very devil. British North America. In Lower Canada, more than half the population are of French descent. There is a con- tinuous British emigration to this region. The last statistics give for the whole, 3,488,620. Dr. Wilson in his Pre-historic Man, in the chapters on the mixture of Indian and white blood (I suppose in the Canadian region), repudiates the idea of the half-breeds being an example of the weakness and non- permanence of mixed races. But a reviewer, in the An- thropological Revieiv, No. 1, May 1863 (p. 140), says, "It is true that these half-breeds are not likely to form a perma- nent race." Eussian America. The natives of Russian America are of the Esquimaux family (not of the American species), and Ame- rican Indians, about 50,000 ; Aleutians* (not Americans), 8,700; total, 58,700. Danish America, or Greenland, inhabited by Esquimaux, allied, probably, to the same Asiatic family, 9,800. United States op America. The Anglo-Saxon settlers in the United States soon found that the aboriginal hunter and warrior could not be made a working man of, so they depended * See Billings in 1833, and Wrangel, 1839. The Aleutians, Jakutes, Ju- kagires, and Kanischatdales, perish by brandy, famine, excesses, and, it may be added, by a systematic system of extermination on the part of the Rus- sians. Numerous suicides, etc., promote the extinction of the Kamschat- dales. — Waitz, p. 149. POPULATIONS OP THE NEW WORLD. 107 entirely on themselves, neither did they form domestic alliances with the Indian female. Squier, with many others who have had good opportunities of studying the red man, have come to the conclusion that the American species, above all others in the world, seems most averse to everything like assimilation with other species ; it may be said to be almost entirely unim- pressible. Europe has poured its populations for three cen- turies on America, yet the pure Indian is little changed; he looks and acts like a distinct creature from the other species. Colonel Shaffner, in his recent History of America, observes, that great efforts have been made to civilise the Indian, as the European understands it ; but there are insurmountable ob- stacles in the habits or temperament of the Indians. However, in Mexico and South America, some of the red men were comparatively romanised by the Spaniards, and, as they were settled nations, have held together. The Spaniards, however, found large masses of comparatively industrious nations, par- ticularly in Mexico and Peru, living under regulated native governments, and for want of white women, immediately allied themselves to the Indian female, which gave rise to the great Mestizo variety. With the introduction of the negro slave came the Mulatto and Zambo. In 1 790, the white population of the United States was put down at 3,164,148; in 1800, 4,312,841; 1810, 5,862,092; 1820, 7,861,710; 1836, 13,000,000. 1837. Whites ..... 12,689,856 Coloured (free) . . * . . 237,864 Slaves ..... 2,791,588 Total 15,719,308 There may be at present about 300,000 to 400,000* Indians in the United States. Nations and tribes are still perishing. In Marcy's Prairie Traveller, a new edition, edited by Richard F. Burton, there is the following in a note by Burton, which deserves consideration : — " I still believe that the North Ame- rican aborigen, like the Tasmanian and the Australian, is but a * In a recent account of the North American Indians, they are put down at 315,000 only ; Shaffner gives but 130,000 " in the several States and Territories." 108 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT temporary denizen of this world, who fails to succeed in the first struggle with nature. He is, like a wild animal, to be broken, but not to be tamed. In his wild state, the Indian falls before the white man. Settled and semi-civilised, he dies of acute disease. He has virtually disappeared from the wide regions of the Mississippi ; and the same causes, still cease- lessly operating, point to his annihilation when the prairie lands shall have become the grazing grounds of the Western World. " It is a false sentimentalism that cannot look facts in the face, — an unsound reverence that models Providence after its own fashion. The best and wisest book of this, or perhaps of any age, I allude to the Origin of 8pecies, which opens up the grandest views of life, is based upon a practical justification of the ways of Eternal Wisdom to man" (p. 140). In the text there is a very humorous description of the red man : — " They are the most onsartainest varmints in all crea- tion, and I reckon tha'r not ruorm half human ; for you never seed a human, arter you'd fed and treated him to the best fixins in your lodge, jist turn round and steal all your horses, or any other thing he could lay his hands on. , . . The only way to treat Injuns is to thrash a lot of them well first, then the balance will sorter take to you and behave themselves.'" In 1826, it was estimated that the following was the amount of population of the New World : — Whites (Europeans and^heir descendants) . 14,000,000 Indians ...... 10,000,000 Negroes (mostly slaves) . ... 7,400,000 Mixed-breeds . .. . .' . 7,000,000 38,000,000 However, in 1860 we are informed that, according to the best calculations, there was a population of 67,000,000; Spa- nish America claiming to have 24,121,000; the remaining 32,879,000 belonging to the United States. However, on re- ference to the table I have drawn up, 73,840,833 appears to be about the present number. From United States statistics for 1861, I find as follows, Whites and Blacks of all shades, the POPULATIONS OP THE NEW WORLD. 109 Indian not mentioned, the population of the United States was put down at 32,000,000, including 4,136,000* foreigners who had become naturalised citizens ; of this number there were only 210,000 in the Confederate States. That the population had augmented 9,500,000 in ten years. The Black and Mu- latto (including say 500,000 free Blacks and Mulattoes) slaves were stated to be 4,000,000, and they had augmented in the same period 800,000 ; in the Free States the white population had augmented at the rate of 41 per cent. ; but in the Slave States the Whites had only increased 32 per cent, (here we see that climate had something to do with it), and the slaves 22^ per cent., or less than 2£ per cent, annually. Mr. Walford, in a paper to the Statistical Society in March 1863, gave for the population of the United States in 1790, 3,929,827; 1860, 31,429,891. " The increase of population of the United States," he says, " is not so much the result of immigration as is generally believed ; for during the last forty years the total immigration to the United States was 4,908,321 ; the in- crease of population in the same period was 21,000,000 •" but from the statistics of 1861, I have shown that in a population of 32,000,000, there were 4,136,000 naturalised citizens. It is generally stated that there are 8,000,000 of Whites in the Southern or Confederate States, and 4,000,000 black and coloured; equal 12,000,000 ; if this be so, then the balance, or 20,000,000, including also some few blacks and mulattoes, may be called Northerners or Federals. It has been stated, that out of the four millions of black and coloured people in the Southern States, only one million were employed in cotton culture. The amount of pure Negro population, slave as well as free, in the New World, in 1826, was put down at 7,000,000, and taking into consideration that there were imported during three * The naturalised citizens had come from Ireland, 1,611,000; England, 430,000; France, 109,000; Switzerland, 53,000; Norway, 43,<>00; Turkey, 28,000; Denmark, 10,000; Poland, 7,000; West Indies, 7,000; Portugal, 4,000; German States, 1,198,000; British America, 250,000 ; Scotland, 105,000 ; Wales, 45,000; Holland, 28,000; Italy, 10,000; Belgium, 9,000; Mexico, 7,000; China, 5,000; Prussia, 3,000; Various Countries, 204,000; total, 4,136,000.— Kennedy's Statistics. 110 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT centuries more than 14,000,000, it is extraordinary that the Ne- groes should be so few in number at present, comparing them in some measure with the laws that rule the increase of white population, which has been so much more prolific. Has this resulted from their position of slavery, or the want of a suffi- cient number of females of their species ? Formerly, in the United States, female slaves were allowed jive weeks rest be- tween childbirth and returning to the labours of the field ; of late years it has been diminished to three weeks. It has been stated, that it was an object with some of the slave-owners in the United States to increase their numbers of slaves by " home management," from which has proceeded so many Mulattoes of every shade from this source.* The Negro and Mulatto do not thrive in the Northern States on the score of health : these are free, but looked upon as a " mean" thing. Other Negroes and Mulattoes who have run away from the Slave States into the Northern, have about the same unsatisfactory position ; but many are being turned into soldiers by the Federals to be used up. We have still to be satisfied as to the benefited position of the freed Negroes and Mulattoes from the United States who have settled in Liberia, under their own republican government ; and if the climate is altogether congenial to those of the African species whose pro- genitors have been long from their native soil. A French writer in 1844 speaks thus of the people inhabit- ing the United States (excepting the Indians) . People of so many countries and of such diversity of character inhabit the United States, that it would be fatiguing to describe them. The descendants of the British predominate ; they are like their progenitors for activity and application to labour, pride of country, and a desire of universal dominion. The character and customs of the inhabitants of those regions conquered by the French and Spaniards, are peculiar to themselves, and the * The Mulatto, it is well known, bears a large proportion among the slave and coloured free population of the United States, thanks to the white blood flowing in their veins. " Since Anglo-Saxon sires have contributed so largely to the production of the present coloured generation, ... a large proportion of the Southern population is the offspring of white men and coloured women." — See F. A. Kemble's Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation. POPULATIONS OP THE NEW WORLD. Ill Anglo-Americans (Northerners) do not truly sympathise with their southern brethren. The black and coloured people have no position in society whatever. Just before the exterminating war now raging;, the following, which I extract from Clyde's Geography , appears to be a good resume. Until the beginning of the present century, the white population was, with the single exception of New York, where the Dutch element was very strong, almost exclusively of Anglo-Saxon descent; but since then it has received enor- mous accessions not only of the Celtic family from Ireland, Wales, and the Scotch highlands ; but also of various conti- nental families, particularly Germans. It has been calculated, that of persons who emigrated to the United States since 1 790, and their descendants, nearly 4,500,000 were alive in 1850. In that same year of 1850, more than. 2, 000, 000 persons in the United States were foreigners by birth ; by far the greater part of these were British, Ireland alone having sent nearly 1,000,000. A farther mixture of families has resulted from annexation. With Louisiana, a population of French (Celtic ?) origin was admitted into the Union, and a considerable number of Spa- niards, with Florida, Texas, New Mexico, and California. All these, it is reported, easily amalgamate with each other, and the great distinction of race in the United States is that be- tween the white and the black. At the period of the Declara- tion of Independence in 1776, there were only 500,000 slaves in the revolted colonies ; there are now over 3,500,000 slaves, and about 1,000,000 free blacks and coloured people. In the foregoing, I have confined myself to statistics and to the more marked physical characteristics of the people of the New World ; but cannot bring myself to think that the mixture of the white, red, and black species produce other than varieties, such varieties not being very good specimens of humanity, if examined physiologically,* psychologically, or by their political history. The Indian is at home, living on his * Observe only the osteological differences between the White and Negro ; the skeleton of the latter is heavier, bones thicker, muscles larger, capacity of skull less, and fewer convolutions in the brain. Similar differences will be found when comparing the White with the other species and varieties of man. Paul Broca tells us that the white substance of the brain of the Negro 112 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT own soil, in Lis own climate ; but lie is doomed to disappear by tlie inroads of the white race. The Negro is fitted to the low tropical lands ; but take him into the high table-lands, or into the Andes, and he suffers. The European and his descendants, in many portions of the New World, feel unfavourably the effect of change of climate, and to keep this race up to a robust standard, fresh immigration from Europe will be always neces- sary. Then, as to the political and moral character, I once intended to have examined into the causes of the continual revolutions in the Spanish American Republics, one of the principal causes I attribute to the mixture of species ; but will now only advert to what is going on in that " late lamented institution, the nation of sovereigns," the United States of America, from the people of which extensive country, some- thing better might have been expected than the most sangui- nary civil war, or u American mutual slaughter," on record, — for here the belligerents are the white races of Europe and their descendants. Up to November 1863, it was calculated that the government of Lincoln had sent 1,500,000 men into the field.* The liabilities of the government were about £600,000,000. This is independent of ruinous loss to agricul- ture, trade, and commerce, to both North and South, and ex- clusive of the cost to the South of men and money. Lord Brougham observed at the late meeting of the Social Science Congress at Edinburgh, that " he attributed to the insane vanity and mendacity rampant in America, much of the cala- mity by which she is now afflicted." Griddon, p. 444, Indigenous Races, refers to Count Gobineau's is of a different colour to that of the European ; and that the pia mater con- tains brown spots, which are never found in the European. At page 464, Types of Mankind, drawings are given of the brain of the European and Ame- rican Indian. In the American Indian, the anterior lobe is small ; in the European it is large in proportion to the middle lobe. In the Indian the posterior lobe is much smaller than in the European. In the American, the cerebral convolutions on the anterior lobe and upper surfaces of the brain are smaller than in the European. Quetelet observes, that the American race has a greater breadth of chest and smaller feet than the European. If there are differences in the various species of humanity, ought we not first to suppose a difference in the germ of life, as well as in the fructifying principle. Should this ever be made out, it will be the experimentum crucis in favour of Poly- genism. * To March 1864 this war had already consumed over a million of men. POPULATIONS OP THE NEW WORLD. 113 Essai sur Vlnegalite des Races Tlumaines, 1855, who, on exa- mining the character of Lucius Cornelius Sylla, calls him sur- geon, butcher, scoundrel. . . . The populace of Rome he wished to bring back to the manners and discipline of the olden time, resembled in nothing that republican people who had practised them. To convince oneself, it suffices to compare the ethnic elements of the days of Cincinnatus (b.c. 460) with those existing at the epoch when the great dictator lived (b.c. 138-81). It is impossible to bring back into the same framework two nations which, under the same name, resemble each other so little." Grliddon adds, "When ethnologists apply this excellent method of analysis to every nation, espe- cially to these United States of America, they will obtain practical results undreamed of by literary historians, who be- lieving in the " Unity of the Human Species," have neither any idea of these amalgamations of distinct races, nor of their natural and therefore inevitable consequences for good or evil." The Times special correspondent makes the following obser- vations on the " Typical Yankee :" — " There is certainly some- thing striking about the prevailing American type. That long, lank, neshless form, that straight hair, that stoop in the shoulders, that colourless face, those by no means bad yet somewhat harsh features, that high but flat brow, those pale, thin, compressed lips, that sad yet shrewd and coldly humorous expression, remind you at every step of that complex yet dis- tinct original which the great Nova-Scotian stereotyped in ' Sam Slick.' To give the genuine Yankee a family air through- out the Union the costume at present in vogue contributes in no small degree. The fashion has lately sprung up, and it struck me on my arrival as an innovation at variance with all my reminiscences of American look. The true Yankee shaves his upper lip, and sometimes the edge of the nether one, allow- ing the beard to grow stiff and straight on the chin. It is the cut of beard that anyone may observe in the portraits of Pre- sident Lincoln, and I should not wonder if it is the First Magistrate who sets the fashions in this Republican land, as King Charles I. or Henry IV did in their respective kingdoms, exercising the same spell as the Empress Eugenie had on the i 114 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT skirts of ladies' gowns and on the frizzled fronts of ladies' coiffures in France. Nay, I shrewdly surmise that the peaked beard, a la Lincoln, is something like a political badge and cognisance in this country. Your true Republican, your out- and-out Abolitionist, is as sure to strike you by his pantaloon tuft on his chin as the old Puritan made himself known by his closely-cropped head and thick, bushy moustaches. Without any pretension to enter into a dispute about matters of taste, I may be permitted to say that the present fashion is, to say the least, an odd one, and the least becoming the American face that could ever have been invented. The dense mass of hair that incumbers the lower face, generally black or very dark, enhances, with no pleasing effect, the length of the bare upper lip — a feature by no means the most pleasing in the American countenance, as it is apt to be heavy and flat, with the corners of the mouth drawn deeply down towards the chin ; seen at a distance, that Capuchin-like beard, contrasting with the blue and white shaven skin, looks like an unreal appendage, a masquerading disguise, and it wears rather absurdly with the high shirt- collar, the long, close-buttoned surtout, and the broad-brimmed hat, which very generally make up with it the strictly Republican garb." In conclusion, I cannot help the expression of surprise that we do not hear our ethnologists and anthropologists refer oftener to Knox on the Races of Mankind, Nott and Grliddon's Types of Mankind, and their Indigenous Races. The first work is thoughtful and original ; the second, elementary ; but the Indigenous Races is one of the most valuable anthropological contributions we have as yet in our language, and published in the United States, containing as it does such researches as the following : — Distribution and classification of Tongues ; Icono- graphic observations ; Cranial characteristics ; Acclimation, or the comparative Influence of Climate; Endemics and Epidemics ; the famous Essay on the Monogenistic and Polygenistic views of Human Creation ; the distinctions observed in the various groups of humanity, and particularly the translation from the first French edition (by Faye, Paris, 1846) of Humboldt's Cos- mos, wherein that great philosopher endorsed the polygenistic POPULATIONS OP THE NEW WOKLD. 115 views of his brother William, but which portion is not to be found in the translations of Sabine or Otte" in 1846. Carlyle styles this " flunk eyism" towards Anglo-Saxon popular credu- lity, so manfully denounced by the late Dr. Robert Knox, which both the English translators exhibit. Gliddon observes, as to the anonymous writer of The Genesis of Earth and Man, etc., and whether the Varieties of the Human Species be of more than One Origin, edited by Reginald Stuart Poole in 1856, ' ' It inspires regret that one so truthful should be compelled, owing to the dreary atmosphere of national prejudices which surrounds him, to fight in the cause of plurality of human origins, and of diversity of races, with his visor down." I have been led to make these Observations on the Past and Present Populations of the New World, — 1. From the prime fact that America, when discovered in 1492, had over 100 mil- lions of natives : at present there may be some ten or eleven millions ; thus, some ninety millions have been destroyed by this sort of showing, directly or iudirectly, by the white in- vaders. 2. That in the Spanish American colonies and Brazil, for more than three centuries, the white European (as Spaniards and some Portuguese) have not increased in numbers in any way approaching that of the Anglo-Saxon, etc., in the United States, which I attribute in a great measure to change of cli- mate, Brazil and Spanish America being mostly tropical, but not so detrimental to the European constitution as India. 3. The fusion, or rather confusion, of the White, Indian, and Negro elements, particularly in the Spanish colonies, is unfavourable to strong, healthy, and prolific progeny, producing such num- berless varieties of Mestizoes, Mulattoes, and Zamboes. 4. There has been a continuous cry from the South American re- publics for the last thirty years for European immigrants ; but there have been two great drawbacks for a favourable response, first, the generally continued state of anarchy ; and secondly, the climate, with its yellow, bilious, and intermittent fevers in many of the localities.* There are, however, exceptions to * " Ethnological Society. — At the meeting of the society on the 4th of Fe- bruary, 1862, Dr. Hunt read an interesting paper ' On the Acclimatisation of Man/ in which he contended that the popular belief, that man can thrive i 2 116 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT this state of things, namely, the Republic of Uraguay, to which a large Spanish and French Basque emigration has gone, and is doing well ; in Chile foreign residents have good health, and a German colony is progressing ; and I might indicate some other localities favourable to European constitutions, viz., the Argentine Confederation, say to breeders of cattle, horses, and sheep in particular; also, the table-lands of Mexico. 5. That mixed-breeds or varieties are not so prolific as pure species ; and that some of the mixed-breeds seem to run into sterility. 6. That in many of the South American States even the children of European parents are reared with more or less difficulty, deaths of the young being much more numerous than in Europe. 7. The long War of Independence which raged throughout the length and breadth of the present Spanish American Republics, thinned the male population in particular; that war having terminated, the said repub- lics, more or less, have had long periods of sanguinary civil war, which I attribute in a great measure to the character of its mixed population being unable to settle down. These are some of the causes which may account for the small proportion of industrial people in Spanish America. Such have been my views for years on this subject, having tra- equally well in the tropics or at the poles, was entirely fallacious. The con- ditions which prevent or retard the acclimatisation of rnan, he said, are physical, mental, and moral. Food is inseparably connected with climatal con- ditions, as also are the physical geography of the district, its elevation or de- pression with respect to sea-level, its soil, atmosphere, the quality of its water, the quantity of light, and the predominance of certain winds. Some plants are peculiar to certain regions, and if transplanted degenerate or die. So with man. In every region he is found organised in harmony with the climate, and if it were not so he would perish. The different races, also, pre- sent different degrees of acclimatisation, in accordance with their mental development ; and every race had certain geographical limits, from which it cannot with impunity be displaced. He went into a great variety of detail and statistics, showing the influences of climate and the results of our colo- nisation. In all cases, not even excepting that of the Spaniards in South America, degeneracy and ultimate dying out appear to be the rule, the appa- rently most marked exception being the Jews. In conclusion, Dr. Hunt observed that, whilst so many mad schemes for colonisation were daily pro- posed, and men vainly boasted, in their pride, of the universal spread of the Anglo-Saxons, it was well to expose some of these delusions ; and no greater benefit could be conferred on humanity than the elucidation of the laws which govern the so-called acclimatisation of man." — See Eeview of The In- fluence of the Climate of North America, on the Physical and Psychical Con- stitution, No. 1, Anthropological Review, May 1863, p. 180. POPULATIONS OP THE NEW WOELD. 117 veiled and sojourned in most of the countries of the New World. Before I close, I cannot help referring to the remarkable work by Squier, Notes on Central America, at pp. 54-8 will be found the following rather startling conclusions : — " Anthro- pological science has determined the existence of two laws of vital importance in their applications to men and nations. First. That in all cases where a free amalgamation takes place be- tween two different stocks, unrestrained by what is sometimes called prejudice, but which is, in fact, a natural instinct, the result is the final absolute absorption of one into the other. This absorption is more rapid as the races or families thus brought in contact approximate in type, and in proportion as one or the other preponderate in numbers; that is to say, nature perpetuates no human hybrids, as, for instance, a per- manent race of Mulattoes. " Second. That all violations of the natural distinctions of race, or of those instincts which were designed to perpetuate the superior races in their purity, invariably entail the most deplorable results, affecting the bodies, intellects, and moral perceptions of nations who are thus blind to the wise designs of nature, and unmindful of her laws. In other words, the offspring of such combinations or amalgamations (or confu- sions) are not only generally deficient in physical constitution, in intellect, and in moral restraint, but to a degree which often contrasts unfavourably with any of the original stocks. In no respect are these deficiencies more obvious than in matters affecting government. We need only point to the anarchical states of Spanish America to verify the truth of the propo- sitions laid down, where we find a people (generally) not only demoralised from the unrestrained association of different races, but also the superior stocks becoming gradually ab- sorbed into the lower, and their institutions disappearing under the relative barbarism of which the latter are the ex- ponents." Grliddon concludes his great contribution on the Monogenistic and Polygenistic theories with a passage from Les Paradds Profanes de I'Occident (Paris, 1856) : "Alongside of theology, 118 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT a new science is rising up, viz., the science of religions (or the science of searching for the truth as far as we are at present able) . The world is (more) positive, because it grows older ; but it has been credulous (ofttimes), insane, intoxicated with (false) poetry and superstition, (blindly) in love with that nature which we now-a-days cause to pass through the crucible." Resume of species and varieties : — ^-Whites . 38,074,423 Species. < Indians . 11,014,710 C Negroes . 12,122,030 r Mestizoes . 6,031,000 Varieties. < Mulattoes . 4,037,440 ' Zamboes . 1,563,230 73,842,833 Character of population in the United States, British North America, Brazil, Mosquitia, West Indies, and Guayana : — Whites (principally Anglo-Saxons, Celts, and Teutons) 31,496,040 Indians (Aborigines) ..... 1,202,300 Negroes (Africans and their descendants) Mestizoes (White and Indian) . Mulattoes (White and Negro) Zamboes (Indian and Negro) 11,926,000 7,000 3,207,440 16,220 47,854,940 Character of the population in the Spanish American States Whites (principally of Spanish descent) . . 7,000,000 10,000,000 200,000 6,300,000 987,000 1,500,873 25,987,893 47,854,940 Indians (Aborigines) Negroes (Africans and their descendants) Mestizoes (Whites and Indians) Mulattoes (Whites and Negroes) Zamboes (Indian and Negro) 73,842,833 POPULATIONS OP THE NEW WORLD. 119 ed with Whites. 30,088) ditto dittof ditto dittoj ditto (25,000) e Foreigners. f Foreigners. ditto ditto ditto £©* s ° a 9«? firH 53 Tjf o 1 E^j 3 S & — o A t>w OOOOOOfe t* o ooooooK- e (M 0 0©0©OieS.2 1 c2 1 te I |M I onaoiioo £>;3 ! r> £ © © © (M o © 1 N a OS co" © C3 Iffl >■ r> rt" ©©©©©©.• .• oo o © © ©^ © o o o o o o p p OO *# o o /^n ^ ^i o OOOOOOcd© . ^ . O © i ■*? 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BOOOOOO'JHOOOOOOOOO © CO S3 oooooooooimccccMOOoo o CO 000000000^00000300000 © 00 rf 00ifflMO00OW<ONOOOO00(CO05O © <M 3 (CWNOOiOCOCO^MOOOOXNlO kO © ^< p< NlMMMMNHTOMXWOO'JlM © oo Pw oo<Msqi-ii-Hcq(Mi-ii-Hr-i oo -* co co co" 1> * • cS • c3 e3 O c3 en •2 .2 Bi "C .2 f-i o3 s cs as 3 00 <x> g .5 '3 GO o 'a ^SfflCooo^dd^^fi^^lScJ go^^H^pqQPH^ppq^pqHP^Q & c3 S3 C3 3 120 On the Tivo Principal Forms of Ancient British and Gaulish Skulls. By John Thurnam, M.D. The skulls from the circular barrows of England of the pre-Roman period, are mostly of brachycephalic or sub-brachy- cephalic type ; this short and broad, or round, cranial form being found in tumuli evidently of the same epoch, though some of them contain implements and weapons of both bronze and stone, others of stone only. It is inferred with great con- fidence, approaching to certainty, that the people of South Britain, who, Caesar tells us, had migrated from Belgic Gaul, were a brachycephalic and also a tall race. If the conical and bell-shaped barrows of South Wilts and Dorset, and especially those of the great Stonehenge necropolis, in the centre of the region of the Belgse of Ptolemy, be not those of the very people who fought against the legions under Plautius and Ves- pasian, then we must conclude that their tombs are yet to seek. Not only were the most civilised people of Britain, at the beginning of the historical period, brachycephalic ; but also the people of Belgic Gaul, whence they came, and likewise those of Celtic Gaul (who there is no proof differed ethnically from their neighbours to the north-east of the Seine and Marne) must have been a short or round-headed race. In addition to the brachycephalous skulls, of which so many examples are described in the Grania Britannica, a less number of decidedly dolichocephalic crania have also been depicted. These are principally derived from the chambered long-barrows of North Wilts and Gloucestershire, being the district of the British Dobuni, the same tribe which, at the time of the con- quest under Claudius, was subject to the great neighbouring tribe of the Catuellani. There is no well-authenticated proof that metallic objects, whether of bronze or iron, have in any case been found in the undisturbed chambers of these tombs, which, however, yield well- chipped flakes and arrowheads, and also axes of flint. The skulls from these barrows, which are those of a people of middle or even short stature, seem cer- tainly the remains of a more ancient people than those who PRINCIPAL FORMS OF BRITISH AND GAULISH SKULLS. 121 raised most of the circular tumuli of this part of the island ; though it might at first sight appear more legitimate to refer thein, not to any pre-Celtic race, but rather to the people of the interior, who, in Cassar's time, claimed to be autochthonic, and at an earlier date had also occupied the coast-districts, from which they had been expelled by the immigrants from Belgic Gaul. The Dobuni were, at least, a tribe with no claim to a Belgic or Gaulish origin, in the way in which the Belga3, the Atrebates, the Regni, the Cantii, and perhaps the Catuel- lani, were Belgic ; but in the time of Julius must have belonged to the ' ' Britannige pars interior" ; though to them, as to the other tribes of the centre of the island, the name of Celtic must be conceded, at least in the sense of their being a Celtic- speaking people. When, however, we conclude that the dolichocephalic skulls from our barrows are more ancient than the brachy- cephalic ones, we find ourselves at variance with the French school of anthropologists. William F. Edwards, the distin- guished teacher of that school, following in the wake of the historian Thierry, maintained that the physical characteristics of both a Gaelic and a Cymric race are still distinguishable in France. Those of the Gaelic, or older Celtic race, constituting his Type Gall, are said to be " a head more round than oval, round features, and a middle stature" ; whilst those of the Cymric, or supposed secondary race, forming his Type Kimri, are " a long head, broad elevated forehead, and a high stature."* A careful perusal of this famous letter by M. Edwards will, I * Des Caract. Physiol, des Races Hum., 1829 : reprinted, Mem. de la Soc. Ethnol. de Paris, 1841, tome i. M. Edwards adds some other characteristics of his two races. His words (pp. 54, 55) are : — " Type Gall .- " Tete arrondie de maniere a se rapprocher de la forme spherique ; le front est moyen, un peu bombe et fuyant vers les ternpes ; les yeiix sont grands et ouverts ; le nez, a partir de la depression a sa naissance, est a peu pres droit, c'est-a-dire qu'il n'a aucune courbure prononcee; 1'extremite en est arrondie, ainsi que le menton; la taille est nioyenne" ("petite, mais assez robuste," 1842). Type Kimri : " Tete longue, le front large et eleve, le nez recourbe, la pointe en bas, et les ailes du nez relevees, le menton fortement prononcee et saillant, la stature haute" (" tres-elevee et tres-grele," 1842). In his letter of 1829, M. Edwards said nothing as to the colour of the eyes or hair ; but in his Frag- ments d'un Memoir e sur les Gaels, written just before his death, in 1842, (Mem. de la Soc. Ethnol., tome ii, p. 13, comp. p. 1), he makes some modification in his description of the two types ; and adds to that of the Type Gall : " Les cheveux sont de couleur obscure, bruns on noirs." Type Kimri : " Les che- veux sont en general legers." 122 PEINCIPAL FORMS OP ANCIENT think, show the limited extent of his observations, and their insufficiency for the confident theory which he based on them. For the most part, however, his views are still received in France. In the Museum of Natural History at Paris, the skulls from ancient Gaulish tombs are marked as belonging to the one or other of these two races, Type Gall or Type Kimry, as they conform to a brachycephalic or a dolichocephalic form, with but little if any warrant from archaeological evidence.* In his work, entitled Ethnoge'nie Oauloise, M. Belloguet laboriously controverts the system of Gaulish duality of MM. Thierry and Edwards ; the defects of which he sums up as, " first, the Cisalpine Kimris of these writers were really Galls; second, the two types could not have had the common (Indo- European) origin which is attributed to them ; and, third, Edwards has forgotten the presence of the Germanic element in the north-east of France and in the Burgundian provinces." His own conclusions are, that the Celts of Gaul, including the Belgee, were blonde, of high stature, and long-headed; and that mixed with them was another more numerous people with brown or black hair and eyes, of less stature, and round or short-headed. These he concludes formed a pre-Celtic race, often regarded as Iberian, but which he rather identifies with the Ligures, to whom he assigns a North-African or Berber origin. These pre-Celtic bracfoycephali he believes were suf- ficiently numerous to absorb the Celts themselves, "whose type," he says, " is no longer found in France. On the other hand, the Celts, as the more civilised race, communicated their language to those whom they conquered, but by whom they were themselves absorbed."f Such are the views of M. Belloguet ; they are ingenious ; but it cannot be admitted that they are * See the remarks on this subject by M. Belloguet, who was informed by M. Serres himself "that he had no other theory on this subject than that of M. W. Edwards, and that he had named Kimry, the skulls of a long, and Gall, those of a round form." M. Belloguet continues : " Ainsi cette classification du Musee d'Anatomie, qui m'avait tant preoccupe comme pouvant faire loi dans la science, n'etait qu'une application faite au hasard du systeme de la dualite Gauloise" (Ethnoge'nie : Types Gaulois, 1861, p. 160). The fullest de- scription I have seen of the ancient Gaulish skulls in the Paris collection is in the work here quoted (pp. 171-177). We must regret the error into which the author falls (p. 172), in confusing and reversing the characters of the so-called type Gall and Type Kimry, in his description of the skulls from the " sepulchral gallery" or dolmen, at Meudon, near Paris. f Belloguet, p. viii, 183. BRITISH AND GAULISH SKULLS. 123 the true explanation of the facts he has so diligently ex- amined. Certain parts of M. Belloguet's criticism rest, probably, on a solid foundation. This is especially the case with his objec- tions* to the diverse physical characteristics of the Celts and Belgas (type Gall and type Kimri), as taught by M. W. Ed- wards. I must, however, remark, that the strongest argument against such diversity is the express testimony of Strabo ; who, after telling us that the Aquitani differed from the other people of Gaul in their bodily conformation, which resembled that of the Iberians ; proceeds to say that the Belgse and Celtse par- ticipated in the same Gaulish exterior, or bodily form.f It is remarkable that in the introduction to the same edition of his work, in which the learned historian, M. Amedee Thierry, gives its due weight to this very passage, he should not per- ceive the inconsistency therewith of the views of M. Edwards, but should have welcomed them as confirmatory of his own doctrine of Gaulish duality, — a doctrine which he had based on historical and philological evidence, though to what extent it is well founded is still much controverted. J It is evidently most important to give their full force to the two passages of Strabo, in which he asserts the common Gaulish exterior of the Celts and Belgce; for, taken with that of Tacitus as to the resem- blance of the Southern Britons and the Gauls, they afford a trustworthy basis to the anthropologist who is engaged in the identification of the osseous remains of these peoples. The learned anatomist of Stockholm, Betzius, also believed the Celtic type to be dolichocephalic; and he referred the brachy cephalic skulls from ancient Gaulish tombs to a pre- Celtic, Turanian race, of whom he believed the Basques to be * Ibid., p. 90-91. f Strabo, lib. iv, c. i, § 1. Tobs 8e Xumovs, YoAcltiktiv /j.hv ri]u 6\i/ti>. (Comp. lib. iv, c. 2, § 1.) It is remarkable tbat although in his Fragments d'un Memoir e sur les Gaels, M. Edwards refers to this important passage, he takes no notice of that part of it here cpioted, which is so opposed to his chief conclusion. $ See the writer's sketch of the philological part of this question in his Historical Ethnology of Britain {Gran. Brit., chap, v, pp. 135-139). The cele- brated passage with which Caesar commences his Commentaries, " De Bello Gallico," should always be read in connexion with the more discriminating one with which Strabo opens his description of Gaul ; and in which he says he describes, as is the duty of the geographer, the physical divisions of countries and diversities of nations, rather than their political limits. 124 PE1NCIPAL POEMS OP ANCIENT tlie living representatives. This view of Retzius appears to be that, until very recently, generally held by the modern school of French anthropologists, as represented by such able inquirers as MM. Broca and Pruner-Bey. It is confidently maintained by M. Broca that both the Celts and Kimris of Caul were dolichoce- phalic, and that Graul had a pre-Celtic population, which was bra- chycephalous. M. Broca refers the brachy cephalic type, which, as he observes, is still so prevalent in France, to a pre-Celtic race of the stone period ; and with many other anthropologists believes that Denmark, Britain, and Switzerland were, in the stone age, likewise inhabited by bracJiycepkali, who, long before the historical period were, like those of France, overrun and sub- jugated by successive waves of dolichocephalic races, the an- cestors of the various Indo-European peoples.* The learned anthropologist, Von Baer, holds similar views ; and derives the brachycephalism of modern Europe, wherever he finds it, from a primitive brachycephalic population, anterior in time to the immigration of the Indo-Europeans, and conse- quently, both in France and Britain, from a pre-Celtic people. f It will be seen that whatever discrepancies there are in these different systems, whether those of Edwards, Belloguet or Retzius, they still agree in making the ancient brachycephalic skulls the older, and the dolichocephalic ones the more recent of the two. It may appear rash to controvert an opinion so * Anthropological Review of London, vol. i, 1863, pp. 292-294. M. Broca admits, however, the pre-historic existence, " perhaps the anteriority," in the west of Europe, of the dolichocephalic type. Notwithstanding this admis- sion seems principally to refer to skulls from caverns, the writer ventures to think that (combined with M. Broca' s own remarkable demonstration of the dolichocephalic character of a large series of Basque skulls) it is with difficulty reconciled with the decided opinion of the same distinguished inquirer as to the brachycephalic character of the pre-Celtic stone-using people, and the dolichocephalic character of the bronze-using Celts. I find, by a letter from M. Broca, that hfs opinions on this subject have gradually undergone considerable modification, and that they have ceased to be identical with those quoted from him in the text above. The views of Retzius are still energetically defended by M. Pruner-Bey. t See the memoir by Professor v. Baer, Ueber einen Schadel aus Mecklenburg, " Bull, de l'Acad. Imp. de St. Petersbourg," 1863, tome iv, p. 335. In this memoir, the author says that whilst there is ample proof of a very ancient brachycephalic race in Europe, there is as yet no sufficient evidence of a doli- chocephalic people anterior to the advent of the Indo-Europeans. He admits, however, that such proof may yet be forthcoming : — " Mehr nachweise von einem Europaischen urvolke mit langgezogenen und zugleich grossen schadeln" (p. 343). I venture to think that strong evidence in this direction is afforded in the present memoir. BRITISH AND GAULISH SKULLS. 125 ably supported by the leading anthropologists of the day ; but the views I have been led to adopt have been forced upon me after long inquiry, and after many years of original investigation of the cranial forms from the most ancient tumuli of this country.* These opinions, moreover, are not altogether pecu- liar to myself. The priority of the dolichocephalic skulls from the chambered and other long-barrows of Britain, was main- tained by the late Mr. Bateman ; who made so large a collec- tion of the most ancient crania, associated implements and other remains, from the barrows excavated by himself and friends, in Derbyshire, Staffordshire and Yorkshire. Mr. Bateman assigned the chambered barrows to ' ' the most remote antiquity, when the sole material for the spear and arrow was flint.-" After exploring several such mounds (much less re- markable, however, in the size of their chambers than those of the Dobunian district), he says, " the interments within the chambers have been many, and apparently continued over some length of time. They are marked by a strongly-defined type of skull, the more obvious feature being excessive elongation and a laterally compressed appearance, enhanced sometimes by the sagittal suture being elevated into a ridge." To a later period, he assigned the smaller barrows covering one or two skeletons, accompanied sometimes by objects of bronze in ad- dition to those of flint, the crania from which, he says, are of a short, round form.f In these conclusions Mr. Bateman to a great extent adopted those of Professor Dr. D. Wilson, whose opinions, as matured by further inquiry, have very lately been published. Dr. Wilson holds that the earliest population of Britain was an allophyllian and pre-Celtic one, with a peculiarly dolichocephalic cranial conformation, tapering equally towards the forehead and occiput, to which he gives the name of humbe- cephalic, or boat-shaped. Ignorant of metals, these people, * It is right to mention that Dr. J. Barnard Davis, joint author with myself of the Crania Britannica, does not admit the priority in date of the dolicho- cephalic skulls from the long barrows, or the pre-Celtic doctrine in any of its forms. He maintains " the protogenic character of the Celts/' and regards the long and short skulls from the tumuli as equally Celtic. His views on this sub- ject differ alike from those here maintained, and from those generally held by continental anthropologists (Cran. Brit., pi. 33, chap, u, p. 20, and passim). f Ten Years Diggings, 1861, p. 146; Journal Brit. Arch. Assoc, 1852, vol. vii, p. 210. 126 PRINCIPAL POEMS OP ANCIENT rude workers in stone, raised those remarkable rnegalithic tombs, in the crypts and galleries of which the bony remains of their noble or royal dead are found. Upon these, he maintains, a race intruded, having skulls of marked brachycephalic pro- portions, with prominent parietal tubers, and truncated and often flattened occiput ; in whose smaller earthen tumuli and cists, the first traces of bronze implements and weapons are met with. This, he believes, was also an allophylliau, perhaps, a Turanian people, to whom a third race, the true Gelts, who, as he holds, were dolichocephalous, succeeded.* To this last proposition I am unable to give my assent, finding, as we do, that the brachycephalous form of skull, described by Dr. Wilson as that of his second race, is the form usual in the least ancient of the pre-Roman tumuli of the south of the island, as well as in the rest of Britain, and is therefore, doubtless, that of the Celtic (Cymric- speaking) inhabitants ; in fact, that of the Britons of the times of both Julius and Claudius Cgesar. Whether sanctioned by authority or not, the views main- tained in this paper appear to rest on facts not easily*other- wise explained. It is my object (whatever may become of the explanations by which they are accompanied) to submit these facts to the consideration of the anthropologists of the two countries ; which — though separated by the sea and by a difference of language — were once the seat of a common Celtic nationality,t and are now happily allied in the joint pursuit of this and other scientific questions. * Prehistoric Annals of Scotland, 1851 ; 2nd edit., 1863, vol. i, chap. ix. Sir W. E,. Wilde, who, in his Lecture on the Ethnology of the Ancient Irish, 1844 (comp. Wilde, Boyne and Blaclcwater, 2nd edit., 1850, pp. 40, 229), called attention to the distinction between long and short skulls, likewise maintained that the long skulls were those of the aboriginal and probably- dark -haired Irish ; and that the round skulls from the smaller cists were those of a second and fair-complexioned race, who became the dominant people of the country. These early views of Sir W. Wilde, having inad- vertently been otherwise represented (Cran. Brit., p. 16), it is important to state this, as is here done with his sanction. He informs me, that his opinions remain unchanged. Among the modern Irish, Sir W. Wilde finds the de- scendants of the two ancient races, — the "long-headed aborigines," dark- haired and of swarthy complexion, particularly beyond the Shannon, towards the west ; and the oval or globular-headed, light-eyed and fair-haired Celtic people, to the north-west of that river. t Under the sovereignty of the Belgic Divitiacus, about 100 B.C., Bell. Gall., lib. 2, c. iii, iv. BRITISH AND GAULISH SKULLS. 127 If we compare the existing populations of England and France, and omit any reference to the combinations resulting from the mixture of types, it will, perhaps, be allowed that there are in each country two principal cranial forms, which are mostly associated with other physical characteristics. In England, the prevailing form of skull is ovoid or moderately dolichocephalic, combined with a more than medium stature, and generally with a fair skin, and light eyes and hair. A much less common form of head is the brachycephalic, usually found in connexion with a less stature, and with a dark skin, hair, and eyes. The first of these two types is Teutonic, and to be traced to an Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian source; whilst it is almost equally certain that the second is derived from our British or Celtic ancestors. In France, two types are found, correspond- ing with those in England, though with their respective modi- fications. The dolichocephalic fair people, not so tall for the most part as those of England, and the darker people, of shorter stature and decidedly more brachycephalic than in this country, form the two prevailing types. In France, however, the bra- chycephalous dark people constitute the majority. England, as its language and history both show, was much more exten- sively Germanised than France ; but, after the downfall of the Roman empire, Gaul likewise admitted a large Teutonic ele- ment ; and it is reasonable to allow that the dolichocephalic type of France, as of England, is in general Teutonic, and to be attributed to a Gothic, Burgundian, Frankish, or Scandina- vian origin ; and not, as by Edwards and others, to a Cymric, as distinguished from a Gaelic one ; or, as by Retzius and his followers, to a Celtic source (without distinction of Cymri and Gael), as distinguished from a pre-Celtic, aboriginal people, of altogether different lineage. It is not, however, denied that the descendants of a pre-Celtic race may still exist in both countries ; though hitherto we have had but little to guide us in the search for them. But though the primary distinctions of type in the existing populations of the two countries may be sufficiently explained by a predominant Celtic or Teutonic derivation, the case may be different as to distinctions revealed to us by the human remains 128 PRINCIPAL FORMS OP ANCIENT derived from different classes of pre-Roman tombs ; and which must be assigned to a period when the Celtic race in both coun- tries was in the main free from Teutonic admixture. In these tombs we find the remains of two distinct human types ; the one brachycephalic and of taller, the other, dolichocephalic and of lower, stature. The archaeological evidence is clearly in favour of the brachycephalic type being the more modern. Exact researches in the more ancient tumuli of France have not, as it appears, yet been made on a large scale ; but in England, in the conoid and bell- shaped barrows, in which implements and weapons of both stone and bronze* are found, (the one or the other predominating, or even excluding the other, accord- ing to the wealth or rank of the person interred, rather than to the relative antiquity of the tomb), the skulls are usually brachycephalic, or inclined to that type, and the stature is often above the average. In the much less numerous class of long barrows, often provided with sepulchral chambers at one end (and which have only recently attracted much attention, either from archaeologists or anthropologists), there are no bronze or other metallic objects, but only those of flint or some kind of stone ; the skulls are dolichocephalic, and the stature below the average. There are rare exceptions to this rule, but these are clearly to be referred to some casual admixture, or to the earlier tombs having been used by the later race ; whilst, as regards the later barrows, it is evident that, unless the earlier race had been suddenly exterminated by the suc- ceeding one, a mixture of interments and a mixture of the two types were to have been expected. There are, then, two distinct cranial types from the bar- rows ; one at least of which must be Celtic. To assume that both are Celtic, can scarcely be reconciled with the idea of * It is a curious fact,, that though the Britons certainly used iron for some purposes before the time of Julius, very few traces of this metal have been found in the tumuH of a pre-Eoman date. The exceptions are so rare that the general argument is scarcely affected by them. The iron tire of chariot- wheels has been met with in barrows ; but it is believed no sword, and hardly a single knife or other implement or weapon of this metal. Any exceptions in this respect seem to apply to the north of the island, where, durino- the imperial sway, the Roman influence, as to funeral customs, did not extend. BRITISH AND GAULISH SKULLS. 129 permanence of type (if such be admitted), or with that of ethnic unity. The Cymric and Gaelic forms of the Celtic language are equally believed to be Indo-European ; and, according to the opinion generally received by such distinguished anthopolo- gists as Retzius and Von Baer, the Indo-European cranial type is dolichocephalic, and the pre-Celtic, allophyllian type, brachyoephalic. The evidence from the barrows, however, is at variance with this view. The brachyoephalic and sub- brachycephalic skulls from the round barrows must be re- garded as those of the bronze-using Celts ; and the dolicho- cephalic skulls from the chambered long-barrows, as those of a pre-Celtic stone-using people. Such seems to have been the order of succession of these two races in Britain ; and such, it is believed, was also the order of their succession in Gaul. As I write, I have been informed by M. Broca, that at Cha- mant, near Senlis (Oise), a long barrow has lately been ex- amined, in which were a very large number of skeletons. Three skulls have been preserved, which are " very dolicho- cephalic." There were no objects of metal, but axes, arrow heads and knives of flint, and a bodkin of bone. Nor is this the only example. About the year 1835, at Noyelle-sur-Mer, in Picardy, in a tumulus, the form of which unfortunately is not stated, there were found a great number of human skulls, sepa- rated from the trunk, and arranged in a sort of pile. All the skulls exhumed had, we are told, a singular conformation, being very long in the antero-posterior diameter, and very narrow in the transverse ; so that the general form was much more elongated than in any French people at the present day.* In Denmark, are certain megalithic barrows, in many re- spects like those of England, which are called Giants' Chambers; some of which have been opened, and found to contain skele- tons and implements of stone. The skulls are generally of a * Mem. de la Soc. d' Emulation d' Abbeville, 1838-40, p. 275. Of the skulls, four are preserved in the museum at the Jardin des Plantes (Nos. 209, 314, 315, 317 ; comp. Belloguet, p. 173). The reporter on this tumulus observes : — " L'etude de ces monumens, dans notre pays, est fort peu avancee : . . . il parait d'une haute importance d'ouvrir d'autres tombelles, et de noter soigneusement toutes les circonstances de ces ouvertures." 130 PRINCIPAL FORMS OF ANCIENT short, round form ; and the most ancient people of this part of Europe, to whom these tombs are ascribed, are probably correctly regarded as of brachycephalous type. There is, how- ever, no reason why the order of succession of dolichocephalic and brachycephalic races should have been the same in two parts of Europe so far apart as Scandinavia and Britain ; and the type of the primeval brachycephalous race of the north is possibly to be connected with that of the existing brachyce- phalic Lapps. By a favourite hypothesis of various German and northern philologists and antiquaries, a so-called Turanian race is supposed to have constituted the earliest population of Europe, prior to the extension of Indo-European peoples in the west; and the Basques, whose language still defies classification, and is certainly not Indo-European, have been conjectured to form, with the Lapps, a second remnant of such aboriginal people.* The Basques have long been regarded as brachycephalous ; but this was on the authority of Retzius, who had no other grounds for the opinion, than those afforded by two skulls, reputed to be Basque, presented to the Museum at Stockholm, which are of this type.f So long as the modern Basques were supposed to be brachycephalous, the hypothesis of a pre-Celtic race of that type, spread over the west and north, or even the whole of Europe, was consistent in * Dr. J. Barnard Davis has measured a considerable series of these skulls in the museums at Copenhagen, which were obtained from the Giant's Chamber at Borreby, and from other Scandinavian raegalithic tombs (Cran. Brit., chap, viii) . They have also been described and figured by Mr. Busk (Lyell, Anti- quity of Man, 1st edit., p. 86, and elsewhere). It must be admitted that these sktdls have a great resemblance to those of the ancient Gauls and Bri- tons of the brachycephalic series ; and it deserves inquiry whether they do not really belong to a northern branch of the same people. Measurements of them are given in one of the Tables appended to this Memoir. f Dr. Barnard Davis, who has examined these two skulls, informs me that they are marked — the one (A.), " J. D. Tellander, 1858" ; and the other (B.), " E. Museo Anatom. Clamart, Parisiis, 1859," (an apocryphal specimen; — they never had a Basque skull at Clamart). The authenticity of both these skulls appears to be doubtful, notwithstanding what is said in Bulletins de la Societe a" Anthropologic, t. iii, p. 483 ; and Muller, ArcMv., 1858, p. 3. Both, especi- ally the former, present an extensive parieto-occipital flatness. The mea- surements are as follows : — LENGTH. BREADTH. B. :L Inches. Inches. A. ... 6-8 6.2 t. •91 B. ... 69 6-1 p. •88 BRITISH AND GAULISH SKULLS. 131 itself; though not easily reconciled with the fact of the skulls from the earliest tombs of England, and perhaps of France, being of dolichocephalous form. The Basques, however, so far as a large series of skulls from a village cemetery in Guipuscoa shows, are now found to be a long-headed people. As M. Broca informs us : " Only two or three of these sixty skulls are brachycephalous, and most of them are altogether dolicho- cephalous." This has a most important bearing on the ques- tion, whether one of the oldest, perhaps the oldest, population of the British islands and Gaul, may not have had a southern, and perhaps Iberian origin. For a probable solution of this pro- blem, a comparison of the skulls from the long barrows with those of the Basques is essential, and to this I propose to return. It is unnecessary here to describe the chambered barrows of the south-west of England ; this being amply done in the Crania Britannica, in which the curious megalithic archi- tecture of crypts and cists, in the tumuli of Uley, Littleton- Drew, West-Kennet, and Rodmarton is fully illustrated. These are all situated in North Wiltshire and Gloucestershire ; in which last county this form of tumulus is of very frequent occurrence, and perhaps more common than in all the rest of England.* This may arise from two causes : first, the Cottes- wold Hills abound in stone suitable for the construction of such chambers ; and, secondly, it is not impossible that this bleak district may have been longer occupied by a pre-Celtic people than other parts of the island. Examples, however, exist in the adjoining counties of Berkshire (the celebrated "Weland's Smithy") and Somerset, where, at Stoney-Little- ton, is the most remarkable of the whole, with its entrance, central avenue, and six side chambers, arranged in the form of * A megalithic tumulus at Nympsfield, near Uley, was opened in 1862, and I have described the crania, which have been kindly contributed to my collection, and are of the usual dolichocephalic type (Cotteswold Club Papers, 1863). Two other chambered long-barrows, also in Gloucestershire, were opened in 1863 ; the one near Woodchester, the other near Charlton Abbots. The former had been previously rifled. The skulls from the cist in the Charlton Abbots tumulus were dolichocephalic ; others, from a different part of the mound, brachycephalic. As the exploration has not been com- pleted, any explanation of this apparent discrepancy would be premature. The last-named interments, however, were probably secondary. k2 132 PEINCIPAL FORMS OP ANCIENT a triple cross. Examples are found in both North and South Wales, but (like the circular chambered barrows of Ireland — New Grange and Dowth, — and of the north of Scotland), they have characters peciiliar to themselves. Further north, in Staffordshire and Derbyshire, chambered barrows of less elaborate structure are met with, as described by Mr. Bate- man ; whilst in Yorkshire, I have noticed several large long barrows ; though whether any of them contain chambers, in the absence of more than two or three excavations, is not known. A long barrow at Heslerton on the Wolds, E. R. Yorkshire, excavated in 1851, disclosed a heap of fifteen skeletons, with a leaf-shaped arrow head of flint. The skulls are remarkable for their elongated narrow form.* In levelling another long barrow at Dinnington, near Rotherham, in the West Riding, in 1862, a large number of skeletons were un- covered of all ages and both sexes, but without any regular arrangement, and with no implements or other objects. The skulls have lately been added to the museum at Oxford. They are decidedly dolichocephalic, with the occiput full and pro- minent ; in some of them, the form is quite narrow and elongate. They fully bear out and confirm the general rule : the three most perfect have the breadth of ' 70, ' 72 and ' 73 to the length ; the mean of fifteen skulls is "72. At the moment of my writing, an- other long barrow in theNorthRiding of this county, called Scam- ridge-Howe (near Scarborough), has been opened by the Rev. W. Greenwell. The tumulus is 1 65 feet in length, 45 in breadth, and about eight feet high. At the east end, on the natural level, were the confused remains of about fifteen skeletons, very much decayed and broken, but with no flint or other imple- ments or pottery. I am informed there is some little variety in the form of the skulls, but that the most perfect is of decidedly dolichocephalic type. Elongated and egg-shaped tumuli are met with in Scotland, and are probably to be found in all * Bateman, Ten Years Diggings, pp. 230, 276. The same type of arrowhead has been found in other long barrows ; by Mr. Bateman, in Bingham Lowe, and Long Lowe (%b., pp. 95, 145, 146) ; by Mr. Lysons, at Bodmarton ; and by myself, in the rifled long-barrow on Alton Down, Wilts; but no example of the more artificial barbed arrowhead of flint has yet been met with in these sepulchres. BRITISH AND GAULISH SKULLS. 15o parts of the Island. It is to be hoped that whenever they are explored, it will be by those who are interested in anthro- pological investigations. In France, there are numerous chambered tumuli, especially in Brittany; though there are many in central France, and in the vicinity of Paris itself. As yet, there is less evidence of their being found in the south of that country. As, however, they are met with in Spain — witness the very large one at Antequera — there can be little doubt of their existence in the southern provinces of France likewise. Though they have distinguishing features, these Gaulish sepulchral cham- bers have much in common with those of Britain. Like them, the majority are directed from east to west, with an entrance to the east.* They consist usually of a quadrangular chamber, into which opens a narrow gallery, or " allee couverte." In no instance, so far as I know, are there sets of chambers opening on each side of a central gallery, as in several of the English tumuli. They are usually covered by oval mounds of earth; but I am not aware whether, as in the south-west of England, the megalithic structures are confined to one end of the tumulus, or are situated in the centre. In these chambers, in France as in England, entire human skeletons are found, often in great numbers ; and with these are axes and other implements of stone, but none of bronze or other metal. f As already shown, the skulls from the long barrow at Chamant, near Senlis (Oise), are reported as "very dolichocephalous ;" and another instance of the discovery of ancient Gaulish skulls of elongate type, is afforded by the tumulus of Noyelle-sur-Mer. There appears evidence, there- fore, of the existence in Gaul of a dolichocephalic race during the stone age.| * Carro, Voyage chez les Celtes, 1857, p. 184 ; " Plans des Dolmens." t The sepulchral chambers of the Channel Islands, Guernsey and Jersey, have, as might have been expected, a greater resemblance to those of Prance than of England. % Since the above pages were printed, M. Broca has informed me, that two of three skulls from Chamant have, on being restored, proved to be less doli- chocephalic than he had expected. The breadth of the three, respectively, is as -78, -71, and -78 to the length. Two are thus regarded by him as being lnesaticephalic, and one only as very dolichocephalic. It is evident that a 134 PRINCIPAL FORMS OV ANCIENT At Fontenay, near Caen, a remarkable chambered tumulus was excavated in 1829,* winch corresponds with one type of those in our south-western counties. It contained ten circular domical chambers, arranged in pairs opposite to each other, and formed of horizontal dry-walling. They had a diameter and height of from ten to fifteen feet. Opening into each was a low gallery three or four feet wide, and roofed with large blocks of stone; such as no doubt originally completed the roof of each chamber, as in the celebrated one of New. Grange. The galleries of approach opened on the exterior of the tumulus by low doorways ; the general arrangement being the same as in the chambered barrow at Rodmarton. In the chambers were human skeletons of short stature ; and scattered among these many human bones very imperfectly burnt, some being re- duced to charcoal, and others scarcely coloured by fire. Bones in a similar condition have been found in the Gloucestershire chambered barrows of Nympsfield and Rodmarton ; and in all three suggest some barbarous funeral rite — probably human sacrifices by fire and anthropophagi sm — rather than burial by cremation. There was no trace of any metal; and the only associated relics were a small stone axe-head and two small vases of black pottery. One woman's skull was preserved, casts from which are in different collections. M. Deskayes observes particularly the prolongation of the occiput, giving an occipito- frontal diameter nearly an inch longer than usual in skulls of the same size. The vertical view of the skull has a very dolicho- cephalic aspect ; but the measurements yielded by the cast give results, as the table will show, somewhat at variance with such a conclusion. This arises from the disproportionate develop- ment of the parietal eminences. When the measure is taken at the usual point of the greatest breadth, near the temporal borders of the parietals, the proportion of breadth to length is reduced from "77 to '74. Had more skulls been obtained, greater number of carefully observed facts are required, before more than a tentative comparison can be properly made between the skulls from the dol- mens and chambered barrows of Prance and those of England. For the description of the Charnant chambered tumulus and skulls, see Bulletins de la Societe d' Anthropologic, t. iv, pp. 513, 652 ; t. v, p. 3. * Mem. de la Soc. des Antiq. de Normandie, p. 275, 1831-33. The skull is now at the Museum at the Jardin des Plantes ; No. 2998. BRITISH AND GAULISH SKULLS. 135 more decided proofs of dolichocephalism would probably not have been wanting. But tlie chambered tumuli of France are not, as seems to be the case with those of England, exclusively, if even generally, the tombs of a dolichocephalic people. On the contrary, skulls extremely brachycephalous in form have been obtained from several of them. The most famous is the large one at Meudon, near Versailles, in which were as many as two hundred skele- tons, which was excavated in 1845, and carefully described by M. Eugene Robert.* M. Robert observes, that of the large number of about twenty skulls, which seem to have been obtained from this chamber, some were of a "round" and others of an " oval " form ; so that he conjectured they might be the remains of two distinct races. M. Serres, who reported more particularly on them, named the round skulls as of the type Gall, and the oval ones as of the type Kimry ; designations which he adopted from M. W. F. Edwards. In support of this opinion, M. Serres informs us that these two forms of skull occupied two different levels in the chamber, those of the type Gall being generally the deepest. This statement, however, is accompanied by qualifications which deprive it of much value jf and even were this not so, the inference which is implied, that the skeletons with an oval form of skull had been interred at a later period than those in which the cranium is of a short round form, can scarcely be admitted. These large sepulchral chambers seem always to have been entered by the opening at one end, when interments were to be made in them ; as the covering stones are too heavy to have been easily removed when once in place. It is even pos- sible that the brachycephalic skulls, which were of great thick - * Comptes Bendus de VAcad. des Sciences, tome xxi, 1845 : " "V oyages en Scandinavie," etc., 1854, pp. 199-248. With the skeletons were several axe-, javelin-, and arrow-heads, knives and other implements, all of flint ; various implements of bone and horn ; part of a necklace formed of the canine teeth of a badger, and many fragments of coarse, black and reddish, hand-made pottery. It is clear that the dolmen belonged to the " stone-period" ; and the little bit of broken bronze, the position of which is not noted, was probably of no more significance than the fragments of Roman tile and pottery, which had, no doubt, found their way into the chamber between the covering stones. t " Cette remarque est generale, car on n'a apporte aucun ordre dans l'enlevement des ossements." P. 223. 136 PRINCIPAL FORMS OP ANCIENT ness, and very different in this respect from the oval ones, Avould, from their greater weight, sooner drop from the bodies, Fig. 1. Male Shall from the Meudon dolmen. — Quarter diameter. which were deposited in a crouching posture face to face along the sides of the chamber. If this were the case, they would naturally occupy a lower level, and would also acquire that Fig. 2. Vertical view of the same skull. — Quarter diameter. slate-grey colour by which they were distinguished from the yellowish coloured oval skulls. Altogether, the proof of a succession of races, distinguished by a difference in the cranial type, the oval being subsequent in time to the round, cannot be regarded as substantiated by BRITISH AND GAULISH SKULLS. 137 the researches in this tomb. The existence of considerable variety in the form of the Meudon skulls must be admitted ; Fig. 3. Female skull, from the Meudon dolmen. — Quarter diameter. but whether they are those of two races is a question which would require for its decision a careful examination of the entire series, now, perhaps, scarcely accessible. It Fig. 4. Vertical view of the same skull. — Quarter diameter. is very possible that the difference of form is no greater than is frequently met with in the brachycephalic series ; which, in various races, often deviates towards the oval form, without becoming inordinately dolichocephalic. This is to some 138 PEINCIPAL FORMS OF ANCIENT extent confirmed by an examination of M. Robert's casts of two of the skulls, regarded as typical ; for the use of which I am in- debted to Dr. J. Barnard Davis. That of the male skull, named type Gall (Figs. 1,2), is of the same brachycephalic form as our British skulls from barrows of the bronze period ; the breadth being as "85 to the length. The superciliaries are prominent, and the alveolar portion of the upper jaw is strongly developed, tending towards prognathism. The forehead and vertex are high ; the occiput and adjoining parts of the parietals, as here- after referred to, flattened. The cast of the skull, named type Kimry, is that of a woman (Figs. 3, 4) . The race-characters are rarely well marked in the female ; and, as shown in Professor Wagner's plates of the brain, and equally to be inferred from Professor Welcker's comparative measurements of male and female German skulls, this organ has a longer and more taper- ing form in women, whose skulls, even in brachycephalic races, incline towards dolichocephalism. This skull, however, strictly speaking, is oval rather than dolichocephalic; the proportion of breadth to length being '75; or exactly the mean of the oval or orthocephalic class, as distinguished from the dolichocephalic, in which the proportion may be said not much to exceed '70, and from the brachycephalic, in which it is *80 and upwards.* There is some post-coronal depression. The upper jaw projects somewhat more than that of the male, but has not the Negro-like prognathism, which M. Belloguet attri- butes to it. The occiput is full and prominent, and has no trace of the vertical flatness observed in the male. The two last features are both feminine characteristics. f Even if the Meudon skulls be those of two different races, as it may be admitted is possible, they must, at least, have been contempo- rary; though, in such case, it is possible that one of them may * See the explanation of the Tables appended to this Memoir. f The description by M. Broca (Bull, cle la Soc. d'Anthrop., t. iii, 1862, p. 320), is that of casts of the same skulls from Meudon ; though his measure- ments of the breadth of the female skull falls short of my own (when allowance is made for the defective state of the right parietal) by seven millimetres, or about three-tenths of an English inch. M. Broca, at that time, regarded the dolichocephalic skull as Celtic, the brachycephalic one as pre-Celtic. He observes, particularly on the large size of the latter, with a capacity, as gauged by him, of 1540 cubic centimetres, or 94 cubic inches English. BRITISH AND GAULISH SKULLS. 139 have been dominant and the other servile. The latter, who in such case mnst have been pre-Celtic, may have supplied wives to the former. The proof of the existence in ancient Gaul of a brachy- cephalic race, who interred their distinguished dead in cham- bered tumuli, does not rest on a single example. The skull from a chamber of this description at Marly-le-Roi, not far from Meudon, which was sent by M. Robert to Stockholm, is of round form ;* and Professor Retzius describes it as remark- ably similar to the brachycephalic skull from the chambered barrow at Stege, in the Danish isle of Moen ; of which Pro- fessor Eschricht gives a good representation. t Another "sepul- chral gallery" at Val (rTsle-Adam, Oise), in the country of the Silvanectes, to the east of Paris, having an entrance to the south, has been particularly described by M. Serres.J With the skeletons, there was nothing found but two small stone axes, and two vases of sun-dried pottery. Whilst M. Serres alludes to a considerable variety of type in the crania from this chamber, he, at the same time, remarks on the great perfection of the " type Gall" or brachycephalism, of certain of them. The curious entire skeleton, with the label Silvanecte (No. 1634), which, with several of the skulls, is in the museum at the Jardin des Plantes, is from this tomb. It has an oval or orthocephalic cranium, and is that of a woman. The evidence before us appears to favour the conclusion, that whilst in Britain the chambered long barrows were erected by a dolichocephalous race, in Gaul such tombs were raised by a brachycephalous as well as by a dolichocephalous one, though especially by the former. Hence the inference, that the two races came into contact in Gaul at an earlier period than in Britain. In this country, it has been shown that the evidence is in favour of the dolichocephalous race having preceded the brachycephalous ; by whom it seems to have been * Eobert, Op. cit., p. 227; Midler, Archiv., 1847, p. 500. f Dansk Folkeblad, 1837, No. 28, p. 109. The figures and measurements of the two skulls are very similar ; but that from Moen is of a man, that from Marly, most probably, of a woman. X Comptes Bendxis de I' Acad, des Sciences, tome xxxix, 1854. 140 PEINCIPAL FORMS OF ANCIENT absorbed, or, as is less likely, extirpated. In Britain, the re- mains of the brachycephalous Celtic race do not distinctly appear except in the circular tumuli, which are generally to be referred to the age of bronze ; whilst the chambered and other long barrows of the stone age, so far as yet examined, always contain skeletons with crania of a dolichocephalic type. — It seems desirable to adduce further evidence of this position. In South Wiltshire, scattered among the much more numer- ous circular tumuli, are many gigantic long barrows without chambers ; stones for the formation of which were not easily to be obtained. Many of these were examined by Sir Richard Hoare and Mr. Cunnington ; and found to cover interments of entire skeletons, generally at the east end, and without orna- ments, pottery or weapons of bronze, or other metal.* Unfor- tunately, none of the skulls were preserved ; and it was impos- sible to say what was their type, whether dolichocephalic, like those from the chambers of the Dobuni, or brachycephalic, like those from the surrounding conoid and bell-shaped barrows. After many unsuccessful attempts to find a long barrow having the original interment intact, in the spring of 1863 I was rewarded with success. About a mile and a half to the west of Stonehenge, on the boundary of the parishes of Win- terbourn- Stoke and Wilsford, is a cluster of circular barrows, which, as in many other instances, are grouped around an im- mensely long tumulus ; just as the hypogea and rock-tombs of Egypt are around the great pyramids, f The tumulus is about * Mr. Cunnington informs us, that " of eleven long barrows which he had opened, nine produced skeletons at the wide end, lying by a cist or cists ; . . . but no urns, arms, or trinkets of any kind" (Archceologia, vol. xv, 1805, pp. 340, 345; comp. vol. xxxviii, 1860, p. 405). Sir Richard Hoare concludes the frequent notices of his " unsatisfactory researches in the long barrows of South Wilts" with the remark, that " their original purport is still involved in ob- scurity, and a further explanation of them would be a great desideratum." f See Hoare, Ancient Wilts, 1812, vol. i, pp. 121-126, and plate of " Group of Barrows on Winterbourn Stoke Down." The twenty-six tumuli which, in addition to the long barrow, form this group, are mostly of the more ele- gant, and probably less ancient, forms. In five, the interment has not been found; two, however, are those absurdly called "pond barrows," and pro- bably not sepulchral. Of the twenty -one, seven have been raised over the entire body, and fourteen over the burnt remains. All are probably of the "bronze period;" and in three, containing skeletons, and one, burnt bones, there were fine blades or pins of that metal, one of the last with an ivory BRITISH AND GAULISH SKULLS. 141 240 feet in length, and 9 in height at the north-east end, where it has a breadth of about 65 feet : at the other extremity it is not quite so high or broad. The summit is thrown up almost to an acute ridge, but at the two ends the surface is more rounded. On each side is a trench stretching the whole length of the barrow, but, as usual, not continued round either end. A large excavation at the south-west extremity, disclosed no sepulchral traces ; and this immense mound, with an interment onlyat one end, was no doubt intended quite as muchfor a monu- ment as a tomb. At the north-eastern end, about two feet below the highest part of the tumulus were six skeletons, viz., one of a man of about sixty years, one of a young woman under twenty, one of a child about seven, and three of infants of less than two years, the youngest, perhaps, foetal. The skull of the man lay to the north-east, that of the woman to the south-west. Secondary interments of the Anglo-Saxon period have been Tie* Fig. 5. Earthen Vase, with secondary interment. — One third diameter. found near the summit of long barrows ; but these were obvi- ously British, as shown by the flexed position of the skeletons, handle. Drinking cups, or other earthen vases, were obtained from four of the barrows ; and there was a bone pin with another of the deposits after cremation. 142 PRINCIPAL POEMS OP ANCIENT by an empty vase of very coarse British pottery, and an oval flint knife. The male skull is well preserved, and of extremely brachy cephalic type; the skulls of the women and children were obtained in a fragmentary condition, but the latter present Fig. 6. Flint Knife, with secondary interment. — Two-thirds diameter. the same well-marked type, with the occiput flattened. These interments can hardly have been other than secondary, and of a later date than that for which the tumulus was erected ; and it became a question of no slight interest whether, on the primary interment being reached, the skull would prove of the same, or of dolichocephalic type. Continuing the excavation, the chalk rubble was dug through, to a depth of six feet, into a stratum of black unctuous earthy of which the lower third of the barrow through its entire length seems to have been formed. At a further depth of three feet, the chalk rock was reached, where were the remains of the original interment ; viz., the skeleton of a man laid on the right side, with the knees drawn up in a closely-contracted posture, and the head to the south-west. Close to the right arm, lay a natural bludgeon-shaped flint, about ! llfll ' IP Fig. 7. Bludgeon-shaped Flint, with primary interment. — One-half diameter. eight inches long, well adapted for being grasped in the hand ; from one end of which numerous flakes had been knocked off. The skull was dolichocephalic ; though less decidedly so than BRITISH AND GAULISH SKULLS. 143 many of the crania from the chambered barrows.* Near the back of the head was a round ' ' cist" or hole, scooped out of the chalk rock, about eighteen inches wide and the same in depth. Two feet further to the north, were two similar cists of oval form, but somewhat larger, and scarcely so deep. These holes, like others beneath the long barrows of South Wilts, had perhaps been used for deposits of meat and drink, as a viaticum for the dead ; or possibly for the blood of human victims, whose man- gled remains appear often to have been buried with the body of their chief in this class of tumuli. f A few scattered bones of sheep and other animals were found near the summit; and, about a yard from the feet of the primary interment, was the symphysis of the ischium of an old horse. The skeleton was that of a man of less than middle stature ; viz., about 5 feet 6 inches. The bones are small and slender, and, in this respect, are strongly contrasted with those of the brachycephalic skel- eton from the upper level. J On the linea aspera of the right femur is a sharp jagged exostosis. It remains to describe the two skulls, of which the measure- ments are given in the Tables appended to this paper. A, is the dolichocephalic skull, from the low level or base of the * The skull may be described as sub-dolichocephalic, or, more strictly, as orthocephalic, or oval : its other relations are, on the whole, with the elongated rather than with the abbreviated class of British crania. f In the human sacrifices of Dahomey, a large hole in the ground is pre- pared, with a block of wood, upon which the necks of the victims are laid and their heads chopped off, the blood being allowed to flow into the hole. (For the rest of these barbarous African ceremonies, see the " Despatches of Commodore Wilmot, presented to the House of Commons, 1863.") Very similar were the proceedings connected with the human sacrifices of the Khonds of India. Here, also, the blood of the victims was allowed to flow into a pit or hole prepared for the purpose. (Campbell, Wild Tribes of Khon- distan, 1863.) X The fenrar from the brachycephalic skeleton measures barely half an inch more than that from the dolichocephalic ; and the stature of about 5 feet 8 inches, for a brachycephalic ancient Briton, is exceptionally low. The difference, however, as regards the strength and size of the bones, is very marked. The circumference of the neck of the brachycephalic femur exceeds the other by six -tenths of an inch. The following are the dimensions of the principal bones of the Limbs in the dolichocephalic skeleton from the lower level (skull A.). Upper Extremities. Humerus Radius - Ulna - 12£ inches. - »i „ - 10-} „ Lower Extremities. Femur Tibia Fibula 18 inches. 151 154 " 144 PRINCIPAL FORMS OP ANCIENT barrow ; B, the brachycephalic one, from the secondary inter- ment near the summit. The skulls will be seen to differ in their dimensions in other respects, as well as in the relation of length and breadth. (Plates I and n.) The dolichocephalic skull, A, is that of a man of about 25 years. There is premature synostosis of the frontal and parietals ; the coronal and sagittal sutures being almost entirely effaced. The greatest length is 7*3 inches (the glabello-inial diameter 71 inches) ; the greatest breadth is 5*5 inches, being in the propor- tion of 75 to the length taken as 100. The forehead is narrow and receding, and moderately high in the coronal region, be- hind which is a trace of transverse depression. The parietal tubers are somewhat full, and add materially to the breadth of this otherwise narrow skull. The -posterior borders of the parietals are prolonged backwards, to join a complex chain of Wormian bones in the line of the lambdoid suture.* The superior scale of the occiput is full, rounded, and prominent; the inion more pronounced than usual in this class of dolicho- cephalic skulls. The superciliaries are well marked, the orbits rather small and long ; the nasals prominent, the facial bones short and small; the malars flat and almost vertical; the alveolars short but rather projecting. The mandible is com- paratively small, but angular; the chin square, narrow, and prominent. f All the teeth are present ; they are beautifully white, with scarcely a trace of erosion on their crowns, indicat- ing a very different diet from that which obtained in the case of the brachycephalic Briton, whose skull remains to be described, and whose food probably comprised a large propor- tion of ill-prepared grain. Our dolichocephalic skull is pro- bably that of a young chief, whose diet principally consisted of milk and flesh, which Ceesar tells us in his time was still that of the Britons of the interior. J {Plate i.) * The late Mr. Bateman often found Wormian bones in this situation, in narrow dolichocephalic skulls from the Derbyshire chambered barrows. (Ten Years Diggings, 1861, pp. 263, 269.) f The great similarity of this lower jaw and that of the dolichocephalic and synostotic skull from the chambered long barrow of West-Kennet, de- serves notice. (Cran. Brit., plate 50.) J " Interiores plerique frumenta non seruntj sed lacte et carne vivunt." BEITISH AND GAULISH SKULLS. 145 The large brachycephalic skull, B, has all the sutures exten- sively obliterated, by the advance of age. The greatest length is 7 inches, which is very slightly in excess of the glabello- inial diameter ; the greatest breadth is 6" 15 inches, being in the proportion of 87 to the length taken as 100 : the brachy- cephalisni is greater than in any skull described and engraved in Crania Britannica. The forehead is high, broad, and ex- panded. The parietal region is short, but very broad; its posterior third slopes down abruptly, to meet the projecting rugose border of the overlapping fiat occipital. The parieto- occipital flatness is much more marked on the left side than on the right, and may, perhaps, indicate the use of the cradle- board in infancy. The glabella and superciliaries are tolerably full, the nasals well pronounced, the orbits large and square, the facial bones large and deep, especially in the alveolar re- gion; the malars prominent and elevated. The mandible is large and broad, the chin broad. The left temporo-maxillary joint has been the seat of considerable disease, causing much shortening and deformity of that side of the face. The max- illary condyle and glenoid cavity of the temporal present ex- tensive atrophy and absorption; the right ascending ramus measures 2*8, the left only 2 inches, in length. The teeth are large and covered with tartar, the crowns very much eroded ; the second lower bicuspid on each side seems never to have been developed. {Plate n.) The discovery of skeletons so different in their cranial type, in different parts of this tumulus, goes far to esta- blish the anteriority of that from the lower level, the type of which corresponds on the whole with that of skulls from the chambered barrows of the Dobunian district of North Wilts and Gloucester. Fresh proof is obtained as to the brachycephalic cranial type of the Belgic Britons ; and strong testimony adduced as to the dolichocephalic type of the race which preceded them in this south-west part of Britain. The later Belgic Britons seem to have been the first agriculturists — " agros colere cceperunt." (B. G., lib. v, 12, 14 ; comp. iv, 31, 32; Crania Britannica, c. v. p. 66). L 146 PEINCIPAL POEMS OP ANCIENT Later in the year 1863, I successfully explored another of the long earthen barrows of South Wilts. This was in the parish of Tilshead, about seven miles north of that last described, and not far from the eastern extremity of the ancient vallum called Old Ditch.* It is now covered with trees of about twenty years growth, and is of smaller size than that of Winterbourn-Stoke ; being about 210 feet in length, 50 in breadth, and six or seven in height. There is the usual ditch on its north and south sides. Excavating near the east end, a stratum of black earth was found at the depth of about five feet ; and in and below this, a pile of human bones, closely packed, within a space of less than four feet in diameter and about a foot and a half in depth. They proved to be the remains of eight skeletons, strangely cemented together; so closely as to show, that if not interred after the decay or removal of the flesh, the bodies must have been packed together as closely as possible in the sitting or crouching pos- ture. The lowest skeleton, covered by the others, and most centrally placed, was that of a woman ; whose skull, the best preserved of the whole, is described further on. There were no relics whatever with the skeletons ; nor were any cavities scooped out in the chalk at the base of the barrow disclosed ; though there can be little doubt such " cists" would have been found if the excavations had been sufficiently extended. The skeletons were those of three men, three women, and two infants, from one to two years of age. The length of the bones of the limbs was not above the medium, and implies a stature of from 5 feet 5 inches to 5 feet 8 inches, for the men ; and 4 feet 9 inches to 5 feet 3 inches, for the women. f The restoration of the skulls from the many fragments in which * It is laid down on the Ordnance Survey, and in Sir Kichard Hoare's maps of Heytesbury and Amesbury stations. It is the " fine long barrow on a hill/' referred to at p. 93 of Ancient Wilts, vol. i. f In the following Table the bones are arranged in the order of their length, it being impossible to assign them certainly to the skulls to which they belong. The actual order, however, is not unlikely to have been that in which the skulls are numbered. The computed stature in this table is obtained by taking the femur as 27*5 to the stature estimated as 100; this being the proportion obtained by Dr. BRITISH AND GAULISH SKULLS. 147 they were recovered, was a work of great labour. The first thing observed was that nearly all had been most extensively cleft, apparently during life ; the gashes in two of the male skulls (Nos. 2, 3) being of remarkable length and width ; in the one extending from the forehead to the vertex, and in the other traversing the skull in all directions. In a female calvarium (No. 6) the clefts are nearly as extensive. In the other male skull (No. 1) the largest of the series, the clefts are confined to the two temporal regions, and are somewhat more ambigu- ous in their character. A similar doubt may apply to a second female skull (No. 5) ; but, on the whole, I conclude that all five have been purposely cleft in the completion of the funeral rites. That human victims were sacrificed at the funerals of the Gaulish chiefs, somewhat before his time, we know from Ca3sar himself, and from the geographer Mela. Among barba- rous and partially-civilised peoples, such immolations have every- where been common ; and the mode by which they were carried out by those who raised the chambered and other long bar- rows of this country is evident, from the examples which, up to this time, have been adduced. The heads of the victims were no doubt cleft with an axe or sword. Out of six long barrows, four of them megalithic, which have been exjolored by myself or friends, and which I have particularly described, Humphry, from the measurement of twenty-five skeletons (Human Skeleton, 1858, pp. 106-108, Tables 1 and 4). This estimate gives a somewhat less sta- ture than that obtained by the more artificial methods described in Crania Britannica (plates 42, 51, notes) . More extended data for a table of measure- ments, like that by Dr. Humphry, but disting'uishing the sexes, are still to be desired. No. of the Skull. LENGTH IN INCHES. Computed Eight Femur. Left Femur. Tibia. Humerus. Male. ft. in. 1 18f 18! 16* 13-i- 5 8 2 . 18| — 15! 13| 5 8 3 — 18 — — 5 5 Female. 4 m m m — 5 3 5 16! u-i — 5 0 6 — 15! 4 9 l2 148 PRINCIPAL POEMS OP ANCIENT all have presented such appearances,* with the exception of that of Winterbourn- Stoke, described in this memoir. In this instance the primary interment was represented by a single unmutilated skeleton ; and it is probable that the usual funereal rites were never completed. It is clear that in the exploration of tombs of this description, whether in England or France, cleft skulls should always be searched for. To return to our Tilshead barrrow. The only skull without greater or less trace of violence (No. 4), is that referred to as the deepest and most centrally placed ; and I am inclined to conjecture that this sepulchral mound was raised in honour of some woman of rank or female chief ; the examples of Boa- dicea and Cartismandua showing that in Britain, supreme power was at times exercised by women. All the skulls are of the elongate form, with the occiput full and prominent ; the mean breadth being about as 71 to the length taken as 100; the largest male skull has a breadth of '68. There is post- coronal depression in most, and to a marked extent in one of the female skulls (No. 6). Very decided traces of it are observed in the centrally-situated female skull. This cranium, the only one with the facial bones and lower jaw, is a remark- able specimen, being not only very elongate, but having an ex- tremely-depressed and flattened vertex; the greatest height being only as *65 to the length, f (Plate in.) The only skulls to which I can compare it, are those of three Parisian women and especially that depicted by Dr. Foville, the height of which * The six tumuli are those of ITley, Littleton-Drew, West-Kennet, Bod- marton (all described in Crania Britannica), Wmterbourn-Stoke, and Tils- head. The only example previously on record was in a long barrow near Heytesbury (a few miles from Tilshead), in which Mr. Cunnington, in the year 1801, found numerous skeletons crowded together at the east end, and observed that the skull of one " appeared to have been cut in two by a sword" (Hoare, Ancient Wilts, vol. i, p. 87. No inference was drawn from this) . Cleft skulls, in one or two instances, have been found in other British graves ; and this mode of immolation may have been practised down to a later age than that of the long barrows. The cleft ^skulls from the cists at Monkton, North "Wilts, are of dolichocephalic type, and much resemble the skulls from the long barrows. The district is Dobunian (Cran. Brit. pi. 58). One of the cleft skulls from Eodmarton is figured in Cran. Brit. (pi. 59, p. 4). t In the numerous cranial measurements given by Professor Welcker ( Wachsthum unci Bau cles Menschlichen Schiidels, 1862), I observe only three instances in which the relative height is so low as in this skull. BRITISH AND GAULISH SKULLS. 149 appears to be as '63 to the length.* The skulls of the two "filles publiques," figured by Dr. Gosse,t are of a very similar form, which in all three cases is regarded as the result of an artificial, though undesigned, deformation. Fragments only of the two children's skulls were recovered. The frontal suture of the eldest is quite open, and the two semi-frontals are very remarkable for their breadth, flatness, and slight elevation. This had produced that variety of brachy- c&phalism, denominated frontal by Professor Welcker, from which even dolichocephalic Negroes are not, perhaps, entirely exempt. The form of skull, from the bowl-shaped, bell-shaped, and other circular barrows of pre-Honian Britain, scarcely requires extensive illustration ; being on all hands admitted to be bra- chycephalous. This was the decided opinion of the late Mr. Bateman ; and it is even insisted on by Dr. D. Wilson, who observes : " To whatever causes the change may be traced, certain it is that in the centuries immediately preceding the Romano-British era, the occupants alike of the southern and the northern parts of the island were characterised by a head of brachycephalous proportions, and otherwise essentially dif- ferent from that recovered from the megalithic tombs." J My friend and colleague, Dr. Barnard Davis, who dissents from the pre-Celtic doctrine, and regards the dolichocephalic skull merely as an " aberrant form," the connexion of which with " chambered barrows may be a contingency little more than accidental," still regards the brachycephalous as the " typical form of cranium of the Ancient Briton." § Whilst the dolichocephalic skulls from the long barrows group themselves around the number 70, as regards the pro- * Systeme Nerveux, 1844, atlas, pi. 22. "Crane deforme a la Francaise trouve dans un cirnetiere de Paris." f Deform, du Crane, pi. ii, fig. 3; pi. iv, fig. 9. The deformity in these skulls, the annular and bilobed, is the same with that of which traces, repre- sented by post-coronal depression, are seen in so many of the skulls from the long barrows of the south-west of England. J Prehistoric Annals of Scotland, 2nd edit., vol. i, p. 268. § Proceedings of Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1857, p. 40, " Crania Britannica," passim. 150 PRINCIPAL FORMS OP ANCIENT portion of the breadth to the length taken as 100 ; the brachy- cephalic ones from the round barrows are mostly represented by the number 80 and upwards. The few exceptions to this rule to be observed in the extended Tables of Measurements in the Crania Britannica, are, I believe mostly to be explained by a mixture of races or of interments. It is not probable that the pre-Celtic people were everywhere and at once extirpated or ab- sorbed by the Celtic; and hence the occasional (though still rare) presence of both cranial forms in the same tumulus ; as well, perhaps, as the production of a hybrid population with a cranial form intermediate to the two others. Moreover, the two principal forms of British cranium are here described as dolichocephalous and brachycephalous in a relative sense; and it must not be forgotten that no trenchant line divides the one from the other, but that dolichocephalism, in British as in other skulls, merges in brachycephahsm, through an intermediate ovoid form (mesati- or ortho-cephalism) , by in- sensible gradations. It thus occurs that some of the skulls from the long barrows which are the least dolichocephalic may have the same proportion of breadth to length ("74, *75, or *76) as others from the circular barrows, which are the least bra- chycephalic. Nothing is to be inferred in such a case